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INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION / MIGRATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1998, Vol.36, N? 4
Special Issue: Migration and HIV/AIDS
Migration and AIDS.
AIDS and migration are two salient features of the latter half of this century. Over 30 million persons world-wide are estimated to be infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Concurrently, about 100 million persons move voluntarily within or between nations each year, while almost 40 million are either internally displaced or refugees outside their own countries. Previously, governments' main concern was that incoming migrants might bring HIV with them. While this scenario still applies, there is increasing recognition that migrants may be more vulnerable than local populations to acquiring the infection during migration, and that they may spread the infection upon return to their respective homes.
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) upholds the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. Among its responsibilities, the IOM is dedicated to advancing understanding of migration issues and work towards effective respect of the human dignity and well being of migrants. The United Nations Joint Programme on AIDS (UNAIDS) is the main advocate for global action on HIV/AIDS. Part of its mission is to lead, strengthen and support an expanded response to the epidemic.
In order to address gaps in policy and research, and better identify the priorities for further work, UNAIDS and IOM undertook a joint project to review the current state of knowledge about migration and HIV/AIDS, and to identify priority areas and issues for research and intervention.
(UN, SPECIALIZED AGENCIES, AIDS, MIGRATION).
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Les migrations et le sida.
Le sida et les migrations sont deux ph?nom?nes marquants du dernier demi-si?cle. On estime que 30 millions de personnes sont porteuses du VIH, tandis que quelque 100 millions de personnes migrent volontairement chaque ann?e, dans leur pays ou vers l'?tranger, et 40 000 autres migrent contre leur volont?. Les migrants sont, d'une part, plus expos?s que les s?dentaires ? la contamination, et d'autre part, vecteurs de la propagation du virus.
L'Organisation Internationale des Migrations s'appuie sur le principe qu'une migration effectu?e dans de bonnes conditions est profitable au migrant et ? la soci?t?. Elle ?uvre pour la promotion de l'analyse des probl?mes de migration et pour la dignit? et le bien-?tre des migrants. Le programme UNAIDS a pour mission de lancer ou de favoriser des r?ponses adapt?es et coordonn?es ? l'?pid?mie. Ces deux institutions ont entrepris une action commune pour faire l'?tat des connaissances actuelles en mati?re de migration et VIH/sida, et pour d?finir des priorit?s en mati?re de recherche, de politique et d'intervention.
(ONU, INSTITUTION SPECIALISEE, SIDA, MIGRATION).
English - pp. 445-468.
UNAIDS, 20, avenue Appia, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland, IOM, 17 rue des Morillons, CH-1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland.
***
LYDI?, Nathalie; ROBINSON, Noah Jamie.
West and Central Africa.
In West and Central Africa, countries with high rates of emigration and immigration tend to have higher rates of HIV infection. However, there is one exception, Senegal, an exception demonstrating that high levels of mobility and migration do not necessarily lead to rapid and extensive spread of HIV infection. Five different population groups are considered in this article, either because their numbers are substantial or because their role in the spread of HIV and STDs is known to be important. They are migrant labourers, truck drivers, itinerant traders, commercial sex workers (CSWs), and refugees.
The research indicates a complex relationship between migration and HIV infection. Clearly not all migrants have the same risk of infection and thus do not contribute equally to the spread of HIV. However, there is little analysis to date on the influences of different types of migration (which might be characterized by duration, frequency of return visits, living conditions, etc.) on the spread of HIV infection.
Practical strategies for preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS among migrant populations in West and Central Africa must aim at providing information before departure, along the communication routes, at the final destination and at the time of their return journey. Whatever strategy is used, however, solid collaboration will be required between countries, particulary with respect to information and prevention campaigns, and to the avoidance of stigmatization of any group of individuals.
(WESTERN AFRICA, CENTRAL AFRICA, AIDS, MIGRATION).
***
LYDI?, Nathalie; ROBINSON, Noah Jamie.
L'Afrique de l'Ouest et l'Afrique centrale.
En Afrique occidentale et centrale, les pays qui ont des taux ?lev? d'?migration et d'immigration ont aussi des taux ?lev?s de pr?valence du VIH. Le S?n?gal fait exception et d?montre qu'une intense mobilit? n'entra?ne pas n?cessairement une diffusion large et rapide du VIH. Les auteurs d?crivent et analysent s?par?ment cinq cat?gories de population : les travailleurs migrants, les camionneurs, les marchands ambulants, les prostitu?(e)s et les r?fugi?s. La relation entre migration et VIH est complexe. Tous les migrants ne sont pas expos?s au m?me risque et ne contribuent pas ?galement ? l'expansion de l'?pid?mie, mais cela n'a encore fait l'objet que de peu d'?tudes. Les strat?gies de pr?vention dirig?es vers les migrants doivent d?velopper l'information avant le d?part, le long des voies de communication, au lieu de destination et lors du retour. Cette information doit ?tre particuli?rement adapt?e aux types de migrants qu'elle vise. Une forte collaboration entre pays est n?cessaire pour coordonner les campagnes d'information et de pr?vention, et pour lutter contre la stigmatisation de certains groupes de personnes.
(AFRIQUE OCCIDENTALE, AFRIQUE CENTRALE, SIDA, MIGRATION).
English - pp. 469-511.
N. Lydi?, Centre fran?ais sur la population et d?veloppement, Paris, France, and N. J. Robinson, Institut national de la sant? et de la recherche m?dicale, Unit? 88, Paris, France.
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Eastern and Southern Africa.
The countries included in this review are Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Very little research has specifically addressed the important issue of the relationship between migration and HIV/AIDS in these regions of Africa. However, there is a great deal of information about migration, and also about HIV/AIDS, in isolation from each other. HIV/AIDS is widespread and prevalent throughout the two regions. Since HIV prevalence rates are now high in almost all African countries, the concern that migrations may bring the virus with them is no longer appropriate. Instead, the concern is that migrants may be vulnerable to acquiring the infection during migration, and that they may spread the infection when they return to their homes at the end of migration. After a review of the situation and factors implied, the author examines the medical services accessible to the migrants and raises of serious gaps in this sector.
(SOUTHERN AFRICA, EASTERN AFRICA, AIDS, MIGRATION).
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L'Afrique de l'Est et l'Afrique australe.
Si on a beaucoup ?tudi? s?par?ment l'?pid?mie de VIH et les migrations dans ces pays, on ne s'est gu?re pench? sur la relation entre ces deux ph?nom?nes. Le VIH ?tant maintenant largement r?pandu dans presque toute l'Afrique, la crainte de voir les migrants apporter le virus n'est plus d'actualit?. Il convient plut?t de s'inqui?ter de la vuln?rabilit? sp?cifique des migrants face ? l'?pid?mie. Apr?s un tour d'horizon de la situation et des facteurs impliqu?s, l'auteur examine les services m?dicaux accessibles aux migrants et rel?ve de graves lacunes dans ce secteur.
(AFRIQUE AUSTRALE, AFRIQUE ORIENTALE, SIDA, MIGRATION).
English - pp. 513-551.
B. Girdler-Brown, Department of Community Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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South-East Asia.
This article investigates the issue of HIV and mobile populations in the Mekong Region countries. Economic opening in the region is occurring rapidly as some Mekong States move from centrally planned to market economies and some locations undergo unprecedented economic growth. The uneven nature of economic development has resulted in imbalances between rural and urban, agricultural and industrial areas, and in most places the health and education systems are inadequate for the needs of these new residents. Much of the movement between countries is illegal.
At the same time, HIV/AIDS is highly prevalent in much of the region. Responses to the epidemic range from extremely limited approaches in Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar to wide-ranging and sophisticated strategies in Thailand. In recent years China has begun to devote increased efforts to HIV/AIDS research and interventions in its huge "floating population" and to the provinces bordering the other South-East Asian countries. However, there is as yet little systematic focus on migration and HIV/AIDS at a national level, and no significant regional cooperation on the issue.
Nevertheless, several region-wide research/interventions have been created by aid organizations, NGOs and academic institutions in recent years, and these show considerable potential as models. The author describes some of these projects. Thailand is characterized by the intensity of its efforts in research and its intervention on various levels to face this problem.
(SOUTHEASTERN ASIA, AIDS, MIGRATION).
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L'Asie du Sud-Est.
Les pays riverains du M?kong sont de plus en plus expos?s aux migrations internationales dans la mesure o? ils s'orientent les uns apr?s les autres vers une ?conomie de march? ouverte sur l'ext?rieur. Certaines r?gions connaissent une croissance ?conomique sans pr?c?dent. L'in?galit? du d?veloppement ?conomique accentue les d?s?quilibres entre les milieux ruraux et urbains, entre les r?gions agricoles et les zones industrielles, et dans bien des endroits les syst?mes de sant? et d'?ducation ne sont pas adapt?s aux besoins de leurs nouveaux habitants. La majorit? des migrations entre ces pays sont clandestines. Le VIH est largement r?pandu dans toute la r?gion ; les r?actions des gouvernements vont de quelques mesures timides (Cambodge, Laos, Myanmar) ? des strat?gies sophistiqu?es et de grande ampleur (Tha?lande). R?cemment, la Chine a commenc? ? prendre des mesures orient?es vers sa nombreuses " population flottante " et vers les provinces limitrophes des pays du Sud-Est. Mais on ne peut pas encore parler d'int?r?t syst?matique pour les interactions entre migration et VIH, ni d'une coop?ration r?gionale importante en cette mati?re. Cependant, beaucoup d'initiatives limit?es, non gouverementales, constituent des mod?les potentiels tr?s prometteurs. L'auteur d?crit quelques-uns de ces projets. La Tha?lande se distingue par l'intensit? des efforts de recherche et d'intervention qu'elle d?ploie ? divers niveaux pour faire face ? ce probl?me.
(ASIE DU SUD-EST, SIDA, MIGRATION).
English - pp. 553-585.
I. Bain, APICT-UNAIDS, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Eastern Europe and Community of Independent States.
The collapse of the USSR and the communist systems in the late 1980s and early 1990s has had profound social, economic and political consequences for the two regions. The most significant consequence relating to HIV/AIDS is the opening of the region's borders, making it much easier for populations to migrate. Available research shows a serious lack of information and awareness about HIV/AIDS in these two regions, particularly in countries of the CIS. Nor is there evidence of coordinated programmes shared between AIDS and STD services within the countries.
The number of CIS refugees and persons in refugee-like situations was 870,000 between 1989 and 1996 and there are large numbers of "internally displaced people".
No in-depth research appears to have been done on the prevalence of HIV/AIDS among migration populations in the CIS. Among the general populations, however, the number of HIV-positive cases has increased rapidly since 1995, particularly among the Injecting Drug User (IUD) population. Alarming rises in STD rates have also been noted in the region. No written information is available on prevention, diagnostic or counselling services for migrants in the CIS, and there do not seem to be any formal programmes specifically targetting them. Moreover, services available to the general public are not "migrant-friendly" for a variety of reasons. Although levels of HIV infection in the general population remain very low in Eastern Europe, but the virus is becoming increasingly common in some places. In all Eastern European countries, treatment of HIV/AIDS cases is expensive. If the patient has no legal status in the country, treatment may be refused. Given the lack of knowledge and the potential for rapid escalation of the epidemic among migrant populations, epidemiological, quantitative, and qualitative research on HIV/AIDS and migrants is urgently needed in both regions.
(EASTERN EUROPE, COMMUNITY OF INDEPENDANT STATES, AIDS, MIGRATION).
***
L'Europe de l'Est et la CEI.
Parmi les effets de l'effondrement des r?gimes socialistes d'Europe centrale et orientale, l'ouverture des fronti?res a eu des cons?quences importantes en termes de migrations et de diffusion du VIH. Les travaux r?alis?s dans ces r?gions montrent un s?rieux manque d'information et d'int?r?t ? l'?gard de cette probl?matique, ainsi qu'un manque absolu de coordination des quelques actions entreprises. Le nombre des r?fugi?s et " personnes d?plac?es internes " a explos? depuis la fin des ann?es 1980. On ne conna?t aucune ?tude approfondie sur les migrants et le VIH en CEI, mais on constate depuis peu une augmentation rapide de la proportion de personnes infect?es dans l'ensemble de la population, ou dans certaines cat?gories particuli?res (drogu?s), en m?me temps qu'une forte recrudescence des MST. En revanche, on ne sait rien sur les ?ventuels programmes de pr?vention, de diagnostic ou d'information ax?s sur les populations migrantes ; les services accessibles ? tout un chacun s'av?rent peu praticables pour les migrants. Les taux de pr?valence du VIH dans les autres pays de l'Europe de l'Est sont en g?n?ral peu ?lev?s, mais ils augmentent rapidement dans certains endroits. La prise en charge m?dicale des personnes atteintes est toujours payante et soumise ? des formalit?s administratives que les migrants ne peuvent pas remplir facilement. L'auteur estime que le d?veloppement de recherches ?pid?miologiques, quantitatives et qualitatives, est une n?cessit? urgente.
(EUROPE ORIENTALE, COMMUNAUTE D'ETATS INDEPENDANTS, SIDA, MIGRATION).
***
Mexico and Central America.
The main destination of migrants from these regions is the US and Mexico. Central America's migrant population comprises mainly illiterate and unqualified men, rural in origin and of economically active age. The majority are undocumented and return home after having lived in the US for a time. Based on the little data that are available on HIV/AIDS, Honduras is the most affected country by the epidemic. Available data on HIV/AIDS in the migrant populations of Central America mostly concern migrants in their places of destination. In contrast, a number of research projects on migratory conditions in Mexico shed some light on HIV diffusion, particularly research on Mexican migration towards the US. Among current AIDS cases in Mexico, 10% have a history of residence in the US. This group is clearly differentiated from the rest of People Living With HIV/AIDS's recorded in the country, with a demographic profil similar to that of temporary migrants.
Studies assessing risk behaviours and levels of knowledge of HIV/AIDS among migrants to the US show a descending gradient: almost everyone has heard of condoms, few know about its preventive possibilities, fewer still have appropriate information about its correct use, only a minority use it, and even fewer do so correctly. Widespread risk and vulnerability factors among migrants are numerous. The role of migration policy is not negligible: restrictive measures in the US have resulted in high levels of undocumented migration which has had significant and broadly documented consequences for the spread of HIV, while restricting migrants' use of services.
Two priorities are suggested. First, more research on Central American migrant flows to Mexico and the US. Second, reducing illegal migration will require intense political and technical work to convince decision makers of the risks that restrictive measures generate for the public health.
(CENTRAL AMERICA, MEXICO, UNITED STATES, AIDS, MIGRATION).
***
Le Mexique et l'Am?rique centrale.
Les principales destinations des migrants de cette zone sont les Etats-Unis et le Mexique. La grande majorit? de ces migrants sont des hommes d'?ge actif, illettr?s, non qualifi?s, d'origine rurale ; ils migrent clandestinement et beaucoup reviennent dans leurs pays apr?s avoir v?cu quelque temps ? l'?tranger. D'apr?s les rares donn?es disponibles dans la r?gion, le Honduras est le pays le plus touch? par l'?pid?mie. Les travaux sur le VIH parmi les migrants observent g?n?ralement ceux-ci ? leur lieu de destination. Quelques ?tudes r?v?lent qu'une proportion non n?gligeable des Mexicains atteints du sida ont v?cu un temps aux Etats-Unis, et se distinguent nettement du reste des sid?ens. Les recherches sur les attitudes et les comportements indiquent que si tout le monde conna?t le pr?servatif, peu de gens connaissent son effet pr?ventif, savent l'employer correctement et tr?s peu l'utilisent r?ellement. Les facteurs de risque sp?cifiques aux migrants sont nombreux. Le role des politiques migratoires n'est pas n?gligeable : les restrictions am?ricaines ? l'entr?e dans le pays ont multipli? les migrations clandestines, qui a leur tour emp?chent les migrants d'acc?der aux services sanitaires. L'auteur indique deux priorit?s : intensifier la recherche sur les migrations dans la r?gion, d?velopper les actions politiques et techniques pour convaincre les d?cideurs d'assouplir les r?glementations afin que la majorit? des migrants soient en situation r?guli?re et puissent b?n?ficier des mesures de sant? publique.
(AMERIQUE CENTRALE, MEXIQUE, ETATS-UNIS, SIDA, MIGRATION).
English - pp. 609-642.
M. Bronfman, Center for Research in Health Services, National Institute of Public Health, Mexico City, Mexico.
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INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION / MIGRATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1999, Vol. 37, N? 1
International migration and the global agenda: Reflections on the 1998 UN Technical Symposium.
As a cross-border phenomenon affecting many countries, migration should be an important area for international cooperation. Yet such cooperation has been slow to emerge. Politically, the topic has been marked by interest conflicts and differing national policy approaches. As a field of social scientific research, it has been characterized by fragmentation according to disciplines, paradigms, methodologies and ideologies.
The 1998 United Nations Technical Symposium on International Migration and Development was therefore highly significant as a step towards a global response, although as a meeting of experts it fell short of the intergovernmental deliberations some states (especially emigration countries) have called for.
The Symposium reviewed knowledge on the links between migration and development and discussed the relative success of various policy approaches. A number of key themes emerged. An inclusive research framework is needed which takes account of all types of population mobility and all stages of the migratory process. The contributions of a range of social scientific disciplines and paradigms should be integrated. An important advance has been the growing understanding of the role of social networks and cultural capital in the migratory process.
The Symposium discussed the need for strategies which reflect the ambivalence of women's experience: international migration can be both a source of exploitation and abuse, and an opportunity for greater autonomy. Issues of settlement and of return migration were debated: both need to be considered in strategies for maximizing the benefits of migration for the various participants. An urgent need for better public information and education on migration and settlement was noted. Overall, the Symposium showed the great complexity of links between migration and development. It also found that a knowledge base does exist for greatly improved policy formation and international cooperation in this area of growing global significance.
(UNITED NATIONS, CONFERENCES, INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION, MIGRATION POLICY, DEMOGRAPHIC RESEARCH).
English - pp. 5-19.
S. Castles, Centre for Asia Pacific Social Transformation Studies, University of Wollongong, Australia.
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Trends of international migration since 1965: What existing data reveal.
Relying on data from a variety of sources, this article sketches the main trends of international migration during 1965-1996, thus documenting the changes that both the character and the direction of international migration have undergone over the course of time. In doing so, it provides a quantitative basis to assess the validity of certain common tenets regarding the evolution of migration at the end of the 20th century.
The article concludes that the changes observed are generally less striking than usually claimed, although major historical events, such as the end of the cold war and the transformations it entailed, have had a determining influence in shaping many of the key migration movements occurring since 1985.
In particular, migration originating in the former Eastern bloc countries increased markedly and the dynamics of population mobility within the former Soviet space underwent important modifications. In addition, the end of the bi-polar era allowed the resolution of some long-standing conflicts that permitted the repatriation of large numbers of refugees.
However, the proliferation of ethnic or civil conflicts that has accompanied the nation-building process in several regions has led to a series of forced migration movements. These developments plus the social, economic and demographic differentials that persist between countries at different levels of development have continued and will continue to fuel international migration.
By reviewing the quantitative evidence available at the regional level, this article sets recent developments in perspective.
(WORLD, INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, MIGRATION TRENDS, HISTORICAL ANALYSIS).
English - pp. 21-61.
H. Zlotnik, Mortality and Migration Section, Department for Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York, NY 10017, U.S.A.
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The new economics of labour migration and the role of remittances in the migration process.
In 1995, international migrant remittances exceeded US$70 billion. How have these remittances shaped development in migrant sending areas?
Pessimistic views on migration and development pervade the literature. In contrast, the new economics of labour migration (NELM) argues that migration may set in motion a development dynamic, lessening production and investment constraints faced by households in imperfect market environments and creating income growth linkages.
This article assesses the development potential of remittances from a NELM perspective and cites empirical evidence that remittances may be a positive factor in economic development.
Governments in migrant origin countries may increase the development potential of remittances through a variety of economic policies. Creating a fertile ground for remittances to contribute to broad based income growth in migrant sending areas is a key to promoting development from migration.
(LABOUR MIGRATION, REMITTANCES, ECONOMIC DEMOGRAPHY, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS, PLACE OF ORIGIN).
English - pp. 63-88.
J. E. Taylor, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California, Davis, U.S.A.
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The need to import skilled personnel factors favouring and hindering its international mobility.
Skilled migration has become a major element of contemporary flows. It has developed in scale and variety since the 1930s and now takes many forms, including "brain drain", professional transients, skilled permanent migrants and business transfers. Nevertheless, the data are poor, inconsistent and usually not differentiated by sex.
The importance of policies, both national and regional, to control the movement of skilled migrants has escalated. Receiving countries have come increasingly to see the benefits from admitting skilled workers and have adjusted their permanent and/or temporary migration laws/policies to facilitate entry, usually on the proviso that it does not disadvantage their own workers by taking away their jobs.
Another set of policy frameworks within which skilled migration is occurring is regional blocs. The experience of the European Union (EU) in promoting the flow of skilled labour, movement in this direction in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Mercosul, the Closer Economic Relations (CER) Agreement between Australia and New Zealand and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Forum are analysed.
The article poses two sets of issues facing sending and receiving countries. For sending countries they are: whether to free up or tighten migration; whether to support temporary skilled flows; whether to introduce protective or preventive measures to stem skilled emigration; how to encourage the return of skilled nationals; and whether/how to pursue compensation from post-industrialized countries.
For receiving countries they are: whether to encourage temporary or permanent skilled immigration; the level of entry to permit/promote; how to select/process skilled immigrants; wheter/how to protect the jobs of locals; and how the ensure the successful labour market integration of skilled immigrants.
The article argues that the neo-classical view that skilled migration leads to overall improvement in global development does not apply. "Brain waste" or "wasted skills" occur frequently, to the detriment of both individuals and nations. Improved data and constructive dialogue on skilled migration are needed. Within both regional and international contexts, countries have obligations and responsibilities towards each other which need to be taken seriously.
(INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, SKILLED WORKERS, LABOUR MOBILITY, IMMIGRANTS, MIGRATION POLICY, EMPLOYMENT POLICY).
English - pp. 89-123.
R. Iredale, School of Geosciences and International Business Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Australia.
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The discourse and dimensions of irregularity in post-apartheid South Africa.
South Africa's migration policy since 1994 has been described as contradictory and confused. Indeed, there are profound differences of opinion within government and civil society over the best means to deal with what is believed to be a massive and threatening increase in clandestine migration and irregular employment.
Clarity of thought and policy debate has been hampered by an inflammatory discourse which fixates on the issue of numbers, and views all migrants as a problem and threat. Partly this reflects fundamental inadequacies in systems of data collection and analysis, and partly a poor understanding of the causes and character of cross-border migration in Southern Africa.
As a corrective, this article presents an overview of the causes and spatial/sectoral distribution of irregular employment in post-apartheid South Africa, drawing on recent research. It then critically examines efforts to ascertain the dimensions of undocumented migration to South Africa, concluding that the results are fundamentally flawed by the methodologies used. The article then disaggregates irregular migration and assesses current knowledge about each subcategory.
In conclusion, the article argues for a comprehensive labour market survey as the foundation for a coordinated and rational approach to the challenges of irregular migration and employment.
(SOUTH AFRICA, MIGRATION POLICY, ILLEGAL MIGRATION, ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS, LABOUR MARKET, QUALITY OF DATA).
English - pp. 125-151.
J. Crush, Southern African Migration Project, Queen's University of Kingston, Ontario and Idasa at Cape Town, South Africa.
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Low-skill emigration from Mexico to the United States. Current situation, prospects and government policy.
Low-skill labour migration from Mexico to the US is a dominant aspect of general Mexico-US migration. It is of even greater importance in undocumented migration in general and in undocumented border flows, and as such has become a growing source of concern and initial coordination and collaboration between the two governments. Its visibility made it a primary target for the recent Immigration Act of 1996, and is by far over-represented in apprehension and deportation statistics.
At once unwanted and needed, low-skill Mexicans in the US have been at the core of immigration "problems", and are beginning to receive the kind of policy attention that might, in the medium-term, change the face of migration in North America.
The prospects for Mexican low-skill migration to the US will be determined by a variety of economic and political factors in both countries.
Migration has continued to grow during the 90s and deportations and expulsions of Mexicans are massive. But the two governments are now systematically discussing migration and other bilateral issues. Specifically, the process by which undocumented Mexicans are returned to their country is now carried out in an orderly fashion and with remarkable improvement in their treatment. There are improvements in the treatment of complaints, and reports of abuses have dropped. However, such programmes involving undocumented migration are of little significance. There are working examples of programmes that may provide lessons on possible legal alternatives to the large undocumented flows.
The article recommends that any large-scale migrant worker programme be bilateral in nature. There are two reasons for this. First, bilateral enforcement is likely to better protect migrant rights. Second, Mexican involvement in the process of return (and prolonged stay) in Mexico is likely to minimize the conversion of temporary, circular migration into other, more permanent kinds.
(UNITED STATES, MEXICO, LABOUR MIGRATION, UNSKILLED WORKERS, MIGRATION POLICY, MIGRATION TRENDS, ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION).
English - pp. 153-182.
A. Escobar-Latapi, CIESAS Occidente, Guadalajara, Mexico.
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Return migration to Jamaica and its development potential.
Return migration to Jamaica is associated closely with the existence and nature of the transnational linkages established between migrants and their home country, especially at the level of the household and family. Remittances invariably precede, accompany and follow the actual return of migrants and comprise money as well as a range of consumer goods.
Data on the number of returning migrants to Jamaica have been collected officially only since 1992; other information is derived from field studies. The figures show that the US is the source of most return migrants to Jamaica, with the United Kingdom second.
Likewise, there are few official statistics on remittances, especially of those entering the country through informal channels. Nevertheless, data on the receipt of money through the Bank of Jamaica, indicate that during the 1990s remittances as a percentage of GDP exceeded that of the traditional foreign currency earners of bauxite and sugar.
Growing awareness of the potential of the Jamaican overseas community has led the Government of Jamaica to establish programmes, including The Return of Talent programme, supported by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), to encourage the return of nationals.
Different types of return migrants have the potential to make different kinds of contributions to national development -- some through their skills, educational and professional experience, others through the financial capital which they transfer for investment or as retirement income. However, the most significant development potential of return lies in the social and economic conditions in Jamaica itself. If confidence levels are high, there will be little difficulty in attracting persons to return and financial transfers and investments will increase. Furthermore, the social and economic environment largely conditions the extent to which skills and talent as well as the financial capital are effectively utilized.
(JAMAICA, RETURN MIGRATION, ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS, REMITTANCES, MIGRATION POLICY).
English - pp. 183-207.
E. Thomas-Hope, The James Seivright Moss-Solomon (Snr), Department of Environmental Management, University of West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica.
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Return of overseas contract workers and their rehabilitation and development in Kerala (India). A critical account of policies, performance and prospects.
Large-scale emigration of temporary contract workers from Kerala to countries in the Middle East began in the early 1970s. Return migration flows into Kerala assumed large proportions only after the mid-1980s. Returned migrants include repatriated illegal immigrants and immigrants evacuated during times of political upheaval and hostilities.
Since the end of the 1980s there have been several instances of such repatriation. While reliable information on migration-related matters is not available in Kerala, not even on the magnitudes of onward and return flows, the total number of returned migrants in Kerala must be already around 0.5 million.
Returned migrants are, in general, middle-aged persons with low levels of education, skills and experience. After return, about one-half remain unemployed and of the other half, a few retire from active work and the rest enter into self-employment, mostly in the services sector, or get into salaried jobs, or become wage labour in agriculture or fishing.
Returned migrants have received little assistance from the state government or any other institution for rehabilitation and development. The sociopolitical and economic climate in the state has remained unfriendly to investment, due to a variety of constraints such as scarcity of land, segmentation of the labour market, wage rates much higher than labour productivity, militant trade unionism, political ideology inimical to the growth of the private capitalist sector and inadequacy of the energy and transport infrastructure.
Loss-making public capitalist sector enterprises have discouraged returned migrants from entrusting their savings with government and several fake private sector enterprises which lured them into taking shares have cheated them. The inertia on the part of the state government to attend to the problems of the emigrants began to thaw after 1996, when it introduced an accident-cum-life insurance policy for non-resident Keralites. But no specified scheme for harnessing the development potential of return migrants has as yet emerged.
The novel experiment begun in Kerala for local level development with the active participation of the people, the availability of cooperative credit agencies at all the local levels and the immense possibilities of development of the state, offer a new opportunity for channelling the development potential of the returned migrants into productive investment.
(INDIA, STATE, RETURN MIGRATION, MIGRANT WORKERS, REPATRIATION, INVESTMENTS, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT).
English - pp. 209-242.
P. R. G. Nair, Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.
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DIATTA, Marie Ang?lique; MBOW, Ndiaga.
Releasing the development potential of return migration: The case of Senegal.
Migration has long been a permanent part of Senegal's history. Indeed, as a land of migrants and immigrants, Senegal has always been an important pole of West African immigration because of its colonial heritage, political stability and economic growth which, until the mid-70s, had been relatively good.
Nonetheless, events of the past few decades have induced changes in migration. Continuing desertification, globalization of the economy and accelerated pauperization have intensified the human exodus. The emergence of world markets has stimulated demand for both cheap and highly skilled labour. In general, Senegalese who left the country did so in search of work. These migrations have not been limited to a South-North direction but also, and increasingly, to a South-South one. France, C?te d'Ivoire and Gabon have long been countries of call for Senegalese workers.
This article seeks to evaluate the manner in which Senegal has undertaken to develop the potential of its returning migrants, to better assess the effects of the return and reinsertion of these migrants within the present context of restrictions on the flow of migrants.
The first section presents the profile of Senegalese migrants and then evaluates what may be described as the "French-Senegalese" experience. The latter offers an example of concerted efforts to ensure the reintegration and participation of returning migrants in the economic development of their country of origin.
The second section reviews Senegal's official policies for the protection and promotion of Senegalese living abroad and assesses the Programme of Support to Migrant Workers.
The third section presents recommendations for actions which could accompany migrants returning to their countries of origin and facilitate their reinsertion in the current economic and social environment.
(SENEGAL, RETURN MIGRATION, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, MIGRANT WORKERS, GOVERNMENT POLICY).
English - pp. 243-266.
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Rejected asylum seekers: The problem of return.
During this decade the return of rejected asylum seekers has become an issue of increasing concern to major asylum states in the industrialized world. This article exposes the various political and legal approaches taken by returning states as well as the constraints emerging from human rights law.
As a rigid control paradigm and related enforcement practices entail a considerable risk of human rights violations, it seems reasonable to focus on measures enhancing the voluntary compliance of all actors involved with norms governing return.
This means negotiating a broad political consensus between returning states and countries of origin, specifying the legal framework with a view to securing the human rights of the rejectee, arranging for impartial monitoring of return practices and rendering voluntary forms of return more attractive.
(POLITICAL ASYLUM, DEPORTATION, RETURN MIGRATION, GOVERNMENT POLICY, LAW, HUMAN RIGHTS).
English - pp. 267-288.
G. Noll, Faculty of Law, University of Lund, Sweden.
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Migrants and asylum seekers: Policy responses in the United States to immigrants and refugees from Central America and the Caribbean.
Although the 1990s have witnessed unprecedented immigration and refugee flows, many receiving countries in the West, including the US, have begun to apply more restrictionist policies as a result of perceived threats to their economies and cultural homogeneity.
US immigration policy has generally responded to economic concerns and domestic pressures, while US refugee policy has reflected foreign policy concerns, especially the desire to embarrass communist systems during the Cold War. These policies have resulted in extensive immigration from Mexico and large numbers of refugees from Cuba and Nicaragua, but limited acceptance of asylum seekers from Haiti, El Salvador and Guatemala.
The Welfare Reform Act and Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigration Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) of 1996 and Proposition 187 movement in California (1994), which were meant to limit assistance to legal immigrants, reduce illegal immigration, and improve the efficiency of asylum process, were influenced significantly by American public opinion which viewed large numbers of immigrants as a threat to the American lifestyle.
This legislation also led to revisions in the Immigration and Naturalization Service's (INS) procedures including the "expedited removal" process and new guidelines on deportation and detention which many observers believe may lead to arbitrary decisions and possible violations of international guidelines. These policies present special problems for immigrants and refugees from Central America and the Caribbean who make up a large proportion of these cases.
Since US policy results from a complex matrix of actors including the President, executive branch departments, Congress, the courts, state governors and legislatures and numerous interest groups, and is heavily influenced by perceptions of the American public, any attempt to modify these policies will require an extensive outreach programme on the part of UNHCR and other interested organizations.
In addition, US policy makers must be encouraged to integrate immigration and refugee policy into its overall long-term planning and to participate in efforts at regional cooperation (such as the Puebla process) in order to address the complex problems raised by current and future migration and refugee flows and ensure a more consistent and more humane response to the needs of immigrants, refugees and asylum seekers.
(UNITED STATES, CENTRAL AMERICA, CARIBBEAN, POLITICAL ASYLUM, INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, IMMIGRATION POLICY, DEPORTATION, HUMAN RIGHTS).
English - pp. 289-317.
M. J. McBridge, Political Science Department, Whittier College, California, U.S.A.
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Enhancing the capabilities of emigration countries to protect men and women destined for low-skilled employment: The case of the Philippines.
In the Philippines, overseas employment is a phenomenon that has evolved into a national policy which, over the years, has taken many twists and turns as a result of market changes, political developments and public pressure. Government assesses these policies mainly on two dimensions: job generation and foreign exchange remittances. Academe and non government organizations tend to look at these policies from their social costs: fragmented households, single-parent arrangements and marital break-ups. Workers look at overseas employment and see the ease or hardship with which they are able to negotiate the process of getting an overseas job and being protected from exploitation. While overseas employment effects such as job generation and remittances are supported by hard data, other policy effects such as social costs, orderliness or fairness are usually measured in terms of perception surveys.
This study has attempted to merge available hard data, perception survey and administrative data to evaluate pre-identified objectives of effective overseas employment policies: orderliness, efficiency and fairness, the availability of good jobs and the ease of transferring overseas earnings. This has been done by establishing a hierarchy of intentions (based on perception, validated by resource allocations) against which composite indicators are correlated.
The composite indicators include smaller indicators weighted according to the perception of their importance. The higher the correlation the more effective the policies. The methodology is tedious and difficult, to say the least. Time-series data are not usually available. Indicators can sometimes be awkward, even inappropriate. The assignment of weights, while based on primary intentions as validated by the budget, still constitute value judgement in the eventual disaggregation.
The study hoped to develop an index of efficacy for overseas employment policies. Indices are supposed to be easy to formulate and truly reflective of what is being measured. This study was not easy to formulate and, by that token, probably fails the rule of thumb that an index should be fairly easy to formulate and understand. As with all early efforts, however, this index can stand improvement in both its methodology and its choice of components. Even so, it provides insights and a step forward in the process that hopefully will bring a little more rigor and science in the evaluation of government policies.
(PHILIPPINES, LABOUR MIGRATION, MIGRATION POLICY, EVALUATION, EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES, REMITTANCES, MEASUREMENT, METHODOLOGY).
English - pp. 319-354.
P. Santo Tomas, Department of Education, Culture and Sports, Pasig City, The Philippines.
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INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION / MIGRATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1999, Vol. 37, N? 2
Chain migration through the social network: Experience of labour migrants in Kuwait.
Labour migration to the Gulf countries is predominantly contract based and a majority of workers fall below the salary ceiling necessary for sponsoring family members. Despite this, social networks have expanded in Kuwait, primarily in the form of sponsorship of additional labour migrants by those already in the country.
The objectives of the article are to describe how the process of arranging sponsorship works, to delineate the predictors of moving through a friend or relative, or arranging sponsorship for a subsequent labour migrant, and to assess the "multiplier" effect of the above process. The article is based on a survey among 800 South Asian skilled and unskilled male migrants, 200 each from Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
About 34% of all respondents moved through friends or relatives, 50% through agents and 16% through direct hiring or the government bureau. Logistic regression analysis indicated that the factors most likely to predict a move through the social network consisted of being a Pakistani or Indian, being a Muslim, and possessing some skills.
One-quarter of all migrants had arranged the visa for another migrant since they came to Kuwait. Logistic regression analysis showed the respondent's duration of stay in Kuwait to be an exceptionally important predictor for arranging sponsorship for an additional migrant.
Monthly income, being married and being a Muslim were also positively associated with arranging sponsorship. In terms of the multiplier effect, about 0.78 visas had been arranged per migrant. Pakistanis, who had the longest average duration of stay in Kuwait, arranged the maximum number (1.6) of visas on average.
(KUWAIT, SOUTHERN ASIA, INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, LABOUR MIGRATION, MIGRATION FLOW, MIGRATION DETERMINANTS, SOCIAL GROUPS).
English - pp. 361-382.
N. M. Shah and I. Menon, Department of Community Medicine, Kuwait University, Kuwait.
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Self-employment and earnings among immigrants in Australia.
This article contributes to the small Australian literature on the earnings of immigrants in the self-employment sector. Earnings functions for both the foreign-born and Australian-born are estimated, and the results show that compared with native-born workers, foreign-born workers have higher earnings in the wage/salary sector but lower earnings in the self-employment sector.
Among the foreign-born, the results suggest that self-employed immigrants are less skilled compared with those who are wage/salary employed. Thus, low-skilled immigrants may be forced into self-employment.
There is no evidence of immigrant "catch-up" in the self-employment sector. Among wage/salary workers, however, immigrant wages are characterized by a "catch-up" effect.
(AUSTRALIA, IMMIGRANTS, SELF-EMPLOYED, WAGE EARNERS, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS).
English - pp. 383-412.
A. T. Le, Department of Economics, The University of Western Australia, Australia.
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ROER-STRIER, Dorit; OLSHTAIN-MANN, Orly.
To see and not be seen: Latin American illegal foreign workers in Jerusalem.
The article describes the formation and characteristics of the new evolving community of illegal Latin American foreign workers in Jerusalem while adopting the ecological perspective, which examines human development and behaviour in various contexts of their social and cultural environments.
We have looked specifically at illegal Latin American foreign workers' reasons for and process of migration, their accommodation and living conditions, allocation of employment, daily cultural and social conditions, education and health issues concerning children and families, perceptions of relations with host culture and perceptions of well-being and future expectations.
Our findings are based on the investigation of perspectives offered by the foreign workers themselves, by representatives of the various sectors of the host culture who are well acquainted with these workers, and by the researchers themselves demonstrating how by means of triangulation these perceptions achieve extra validity or differ.
The article further explores the contribution of the case study in the investigation of acculturation stress and migrant's well-being, and emphasizes the need to study specific populations of immigrants under specific ecological conditions.
(ISRAEL, LATIN AMERICA, FOREIGN WORKERS, ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS, LIVING CONDITIONS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION).
English - pp. 413-436.
D. Roer-Strier and O. Olshtain-Mann, The Paul Baerwald School of Social Work, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem, Israel.
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The reverse transfer of technology from sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Zimbabwe.
The article investigates the potential reverse transfer of technology (brain drain) from Zimbabwe, using as case study, academic staff at the main campus of the University of Zimbabwe.
A questionnaire survey was employed to separate all Zimbabwean academic staff into two groups: those who express an intention to emigrate in the near future (1-3 years) and those who express an intention to stay home.
The demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the two groups are discussed, as are the factors cited for dissatisfaction with conditions at the source (the institution and the country), potential destinations, and attractions ("pull" factors) at these destinations. The study concludes that the decision to emigrate is based on an untidy combination of economic, cultural, social and geographic considerations.
(ZIMBABWE, BRAIN DRAIN, UNIVERSITIES, EMIGRATION, MIGRATION DETERMINANTS).
English - pp. 437-463.
B. I. Logan, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.
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"I know a place that is softer than this?" - Emerging migrant communities in South Africa.
Since the end of apartheid, immigration into South Africa has increased dramatically. Migration has become a volatile issue, with South Africans increasingly xenophobic and threatened by the influx of foreigners.
Simultaneously, the question of national identity has increased in significance, with politicians and academics anxious to capture an understanding of the evolution and complementarity of parallel identities and group loyalties.
In the rush to develop a better understanding of identity formation, the opportunity to examine the impacts of hostility on identity, as in the example of migrant individuals and communities in South Africa, has been overlooked. How migrant identities emerge, and how communities play a role in identities and in the survival of individuals, has been a neglected facet of migration in South Africa.
This article, constructed largely from interviews with migrants, presents a picture of the emergence of migrant communities in South African society and seeks to enrich understanding of the complexities of migrant society within the country.
(SOUTH AFRICA, IMMIGRATION, CULTURAL CHANGE, ETHNIC GROUPS, CONFLICTS).
English - pp. 465-483.
M. Ryan Sinclair, Migration Project, Centre for Southern African Studies, University of the Western Cape, South Africa.
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