| Retour à la page d'accueil |
| Back to Home page |
JINKO MONDAI KENKYU, 1999, Vol. 55, N° 2
Special Issue: Studies on the 11th National Fertility Survey in Japan (2)
Work and childbearing choice of married women in Japan: The effect of labor practices.
The paper aims to analyze the changes in work and childbearing behavior, the effect of educa-tional attainment, occupation, firm size, household characteristics, and attitude towards marriage in present Japan. Data used are 7,370 samples from the Eleventh Japanese National Fertility Sur-vey conducted by the National Institute of Population and Social Security Research in 1997 for married women aged up to 49 years old. Despite the Equal Employment Opportunity Law Be-tween Sexes implemented in 1986 and the Child Care Leave Law implemented in 1992, more than 70% of females retire to become housewives after the birth of their first child. The percent-age is even on the increase for the younger generation unlike the case of many western countries. Females eventually re-enter the labor market, but those with higher educational attainment are less likely to return. The purpose of the paper is to examine whether the increase in withdrawal from the labor market following child birth is demand lead, more preferred by women them-selves, or is forced by labor practices and difficulties in adjusting work hours.
First, attitude towards marriage among age groups was compared by factor analysis. It showed that attitude and values towards marriage differed between generations. The increase in with-drawal from labor market of the younger generation did not conform to this new marriage atti-tude that places more emphasis on individual attainment.
Second, individual's choice among continuation of regular work, work change to atypical work and withdrawal from work as full-time housekeeping was estimated using a multinomial logit model for the period following marriage and also for the period following the birth of the first child. While higher wage for women increased continued labor participation after marriage, it did not necessarily do so after childbirth. Factors encouraging participation after childbirth were ad-ditional help within household (extended family), individualistic attitude towards marriage, and one's own mother's work history. Though higher wage did not increase participation after child-birth, if one was to participate, low-wage atypical labor was less likely to be selected. The oppor-tunity cost of quitting the job, however, had some effect on childbirth delay as shown by the Weibull regression analysis. Thus, the recent increase in the withdrawal of women from the labor market after the first childbirth can be explained in most part by enhanced work opportunities in regular employment for women and by difficulties in adjusting work hours, rather than by changes in preferences of the younger generation.
(JAPAN, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, REPRODUCTION, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS, MATERNITY LEAVE, FIRST BIRTH, WITHDRAW FROM THE LABOUR FORCE).
Japanese - pp. 1-18.
***
The transformation of partnerships of Japanese women in the 1990s: Increased reluctance towards traditional marriages and the prevalence of non-cohabiting couples.
The aim of this study is to describe the decline in the number of marriages in present-day Japan from the viewpoint of recent behavioral changes in intimate relationships between men and women. The so-called second demographic transition in developed countries since the mid-1960s has been accompanied by a series of changes in the relationships between men and women in the process of family formation. This research focuses on the recent trends in these relationships of Japanese women with regard to sexual behavior, the availability of a partner, and living arrange-ments with a partner.
The data set was derived from the 9th, 10th, and 11th Japanese National Fertility Survey con-ducted in 1987, 1992 and 1997 respectively. Two samples of never-married and married women between the ages of 18 to 49 were used in the analsis. Even though the number of marriages has declined steeply since the mid-1980s, the number of women who had engaged in intercourse and the proportion of women currently having intimate relationships with their partner has not changed significantly. In contrast, unlike the case in Western Europe, the number of women liv-ing with their partner has decreased radically and non-marital cohabitation has not prevailed.
These findings demonstrate that the recent nuptiality decrease among Japanese women has been accompanied with a shift in the partnership typologies, from the "traditional marriage (legally formalized and living together)" to "non-cohabiting couples (not being legally formalized nor living together)". This transformation should be distinguished from that observed in most west-ern countries, where non-marital cohabitation (not formalized but living together) has replaced marriage to become the dominant type of partnership among younger people, with the exception of Southern Europe.
(JAPAN, WOMEN, TYPES OF MARRIAGE, CONSENSUAL UNION, SEXUAL RELA-TIONSHIPS, COHABITATION, TRENDS).
Japanese - pp. 19-38.
***
The postponement of marriage in Japan and the "single lifestyle".
The postponement of marriage is of strong concern in Japan because of its consequences for fer-tility. This study focuses on the lifestyle patterns of never-married adults to explain the variation in their attitude toward marriage as well as their desire for marriage, using the 11th Japanese National Fertility Survey, which uses a nationally representative sample conducted by the Na-tional Institute of Population and Social Security Research in 1997. To avoid biased results, the analyses are restricted to never-married men and women aged 18-49 who have jobs outside of the primary industries.
The results of cluster analysis show four lifestyle patterns among men and five among women. These lifestyle patterns differentiate the ideal type of spouse; for example, the women having a stronger career-orientation prefer a husband who understands their work situation. Generally, persons who are fulfilled in their public and private life expect a more superior spouse.
Using regression models by sex and cohort, the effects of lifestyle on the desire for marriage are estimated. Men tend to consider themselves to be the breadwinner and their marriage desires de-pend on their socioeconomic status; the higher the status is, the stronger the marriage desire. The effects of lifestyle are stronger than socioeconomic status among women. In addition, men with a fulfilled life have a stronger desire for marriage, while a fulfilled life is a disincentive to marry among women. These findings indicate that there is a gender difference in the relationship be-tween lifestyle and the desire for marriage and that the perceived costs of marriage are especially high to women who enjoy their lives as singles.
(JAPAN, MARRIAGE POSTPONEMENT, UNMARRIED PERSONS, LIFE STYLES, SEX DIFFERENTIALS).
Japanese - pp. 39-58.
***
JINKO MONDAI KENKYU, 1999, Vol. 55, N° 3
Recent fertility trends in Denmark: A discussion of the impact of family policy in a period with increasing fertility.
No summary.
(DENMARK, FERTILITY TRENDS, GOVERNMENT POLICY).
Japanese - pp. 3-26.
***
BEETS, Gijs; VAN NIMWEGEN, Nico.
Population issues in the Netherlands.
No summary.
(NETHERLANDS, POPULATION SITUATION, POPULATION DYNAMICS).
Japanese - pp. 27-51.
G. Beets and N. van Nimwegen, Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI), P.O. Box 11650, 2502 AR 's-Gravenhage, Netherlands.
nimwegen@nidi.nl; beets@nidi.nl.
***
JINKO MONDAI KENKYU, 1999, Vol. 55, N° 4
Special Issue: Studies on the 11th National Fertility Survey in Japan (3)
The research about unmarried people in their twenties and thirties coresiding with own par-ents in Japan.
The aim of this paper is to make clear the living conditions of unmarried persons in their 20s and 30s. In this study based on the national survey it was found that about 65% of male and 80% of female young unmarried adults live with their parents. Compared to those who are living on their own, these young people have fewer lovers and also have fewer sexual experiences. The study also suggests that living with parents has negative influence on young people's attitudes towards marriage.
For unmarried young adults, whether they live with their parents or not is dependent on factors such as educational level, kinds of job, incomes, mother's life course, number of siblings and the character of living area. That is, those adults with higher education, good jobs, higher income and living in big cities are more likely to live separately from their parents, while those adults with full time mother or who are the only one child in the family tend to live with parents.
Finally, these analyses of the national data seem to contradict the notion of the so-called "para-site-singles", that the young adults are highly dependent on the parents they are living with as this study has found that most of them are highly educated and have good jobs. That is, the para-site-singles are not a general phenomenon amongst the unmarried people in Japan, but rather a special case among the middle class families in a metropolitan area. Hence this study suggests that we need to take into account the local and class differences when we analyse unmarried young adults.
(JAPAN, UNMARRIED PERSONS, PARENTS, CHILDREN, COHABITATION, LIFE STYLES, HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION).
Japanese - pp. 1-15.
***
The state of women's life courses in contemporary Japan: Focusing on never-married women's prospects.
This paper attempts to demonstrate the state of women's life courses focusing on the gap between the "ideal" life course and the "anticipated" life course as possible outcomes of never-married women, and to examine the determinants of these inconsistencies, that is, those who give up try-ing to realize their ideal life course by using multinomial logistic models. The data used in this study was obtained from the 9th (1987), 10th (1992), and 11th (1997) Japanese National Fertil-ity Survey.
In contemporary Japan, about 70% of married women with children aged less than six are not working. The question is to what extent those women are satisfied with their current situation. For never-married women, the possibility of realizing an ideal life course is becoming higher in this decade. Even in 1997, however, two thirds of never-married women foresaw that they would pursue a disagreeable life course. Especially over 70% of women whose ideal life course would be "combining work and family" and 80% of women whose ideal life course would be "remain-ing as a housewife" end up abandoning their ideal.
For women whose ideal would be "combining", such characteristics as expecting to be promoted, mother's success in combining, and being a government employee have significant positive ef-fects on their desires being realized. On the other hand, when women are working at large com-panies, or their mothers were not working while they were in their childhood, they are apt to suppose that they would stop working for raising their children. Then women who are in the higher-age bracket or cannot maintain an adequate balance between work and private life tend to continue working without getting married or having any children.
(JAPAN, WOMEN, UNMARRIED PERSONS, LIFE CYCLE, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, SATISFACTION, CHILDLESSNESS).
Japanese - pp. 16-37.
***
UK immigration policy: More rhetoric than reality?
UK immigration policy has the reputation at home and abroad of being firm and effective in its declared aim of restricting immigration to the UK to a limited set of categories of people who are entitled to enter and remain in the country. This paper argues that while the policy aims may ap-pear clear and straightforward, the exceptions to them are essentially open-ended and have per-mitted the continuation of immigration at a relatively high level.
Historically the UK has been a net exporter of population. Since the 1980s the UK has increas-ingly, if unwillingly, become a net importer of population. Regular immigration has increased substantially, especially since 1997, and now forms the major component of UK population growth with substantial implications for future population projections. In 1998 net immigration amounted to about 178,000 people compared to a UK population total of about 60 million.
Since the mid-1990s asylum claiming has been effectively out of control and has made the exist-ing immigration policy almost irrelevant as far as numbers of persons entering the country is concerned. There were about 58,000 asylum claimants in 1998, including an estimate of depend-ants, compared with about 5,000 per year during the 1980s. The trends up to September 1999 suggest a total for the whole of 1999 of 78,000 including an estimate for dependants. While most claims are rejected, most claimants stay anyway. The recent steps which the UK has taken to limit asylum claiming have been ineffective by comparison with other European countries.
(UNITED KINGDOM, IMMIGRATION POLICY, EVALUATION, MIGRATION TRENDS, POLITICAL ASYLUM).
Japanese - pp. 38-63.
D. Coleman, Department of Applied Social Studies and Social Research, Barnett House, Wel-lington Square, Oxford OX1 2ER, U.K.
david.coleman@socres.ox.ac.uk.
***
JINKO MONDAI KENKYU, 2000, Vol. 56, N° 1
Special issue: Below replacement fertility and family and labor policy
ASAMI, Yasushi; ISHIZAKA, Koichi; OE, Moriyuki; KOYAMA, Yasuyo; SEGAWA, Sachiko; MATSUMOTO, Masumi.
Low fertility phenomena and housing conditions.
The relation between the low fertility phenomena and current housing conditions is analyzed. The analysis focused on the relation between housing conditions and timing of marriage, birth of the first child and that of second or latter children in Tokyo Metropolitan area using data from population census, housing survey and national fertility survey.
The results indicate the following tendency: The influence of housing costs or housing conditions to the low fertility phenomena does not particularly exceed the demographic and socioeconomic factors. Nonetheless, as is shown from consciousness surveys, housing cost causes psychological stresses, which in turn may indirectly influence the decision of giving birth. Households seem to plan well concerning having children, and accordingly their prospect for the future is quite im-portant for their decision of having children. These results suggest that: (1) the stability of habita-tion is important, for the number of children tends to be higher in owned houses or low-rent houses; (2) the current housing condition is potentially important, although it is hard to discern the income effect and housing quality effect, for these two factors correlate; (3) brighter prospect for the future is important, for the number of children tends to be higher in houses habitable for longer periods; and (4) the environment suitable for raising children is important, for the number of children tends to be higher for households living with parents or those who can concentrate on raising children in profession status.
Based on those results, the following policies appear to be important as counter-measure for low fertility phenomena: (1) policy for stabilizing the habitability, i.e., to encourage more (both owned and rental) houses in the market that can be habitable for longer period; (2) counter-measure for recession to remove the fear of economy in the future, which avoids much involun-tary unemployment for long time; (3) policy to encourage supply of houses of larger size in the market, that accommodate larger family; and (4) development of housing areas that are equipped with facilities assisting taking care of children, such as longer time day care centers.
(JAPAN, CAPITAL CITY, LOW FERTILITY ZONES, HOUSING CONDITIONS, MARRIAGE, FAMILY SIZE, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS, HOUSING POLICY, PRONATAL-IST POLICY).
Japanese - pp. 8-37.
***
Econometric analysis of birth, marriage, and labor market.
The purpose of this study is to describe relations of birth, marriage, labor participation, and macro-economic performance in recent Japanese society, and to calculate the effects of some policy changes on birth rate and first marriage rate of young women using econometric model. Our model has four main blocks such as birth block, marriage block, labor market block, and macro economy block, and is constituted of fifty-eight equations estimated by OLS and eight exogenous variables including policy ones in all.
Since some prior studies found out that the late marriage of young women was a main cause of decreasing birth rate, we regard this as the most important factor to construct the structural equa-tions of birth rate. Moreover, we considered income and price effects on fertility and set up them as explanatory variables in structural equations of birth rate according to basic consumption the-ory of microeconomics. In marriage block, we utilized a relation between a motive of marriage and participation in labor market of young women for principal explanatory variables to deter-mine a behavior of marriage. In addition, some macro-economic variables such as income per capita or demand for labor etc. are included in the model to show the effects of total population change caused by birth rate change on macro economy.
To calculate the effects on fertility and marriage behavior by policy change, we prepared four simulation cases as: 1) Case 1: Increase the capacity of a day nursery 50% more. 2) Case 2: In addition to Case 1, improving the marriage costs for couples. 3) Case 3: In addition to Case 2, reducing the negative relation between recent tendency of birth rate and female labor participa-tion rate to half. 4) Case 4: In addition to Case 2, neutralizing the negative relation between birth rate and female labor participation rate completely.
Though Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in the simulation period, 1982-1996, was 1.61 on average, Case 1 raises TFR as much as 0.08 point in the same period, and Case 4 as much as 0.37 point and 1.98 on average. Also, those policies increase first marriage rate and encourage early mar-riage for young women. We concluded that some appropriate policies could raise TFR. However, in order to deploy those policies, it must be necessary to improve gender relation of traditional structure in Japanese society.
(JAPAN, ECONOMIC DEMOGRAPHY, ECONOMIC MODELS, FERTILITY, NUPTIALITY, LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION, GOVERNMENT POLICY, PRONATALIST POL-ICY).
Japanese - pp. 38-60.
***