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44 YEARBOOK OF POPULATION RESEARCH IN FINLAND, 1997, N° 34
Reproductive health in the Baltic Sea area.
This paper aims to compare the reproductive health situation in the selected Baltic area countries Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Sweden, and in St. Petersburg. The analyses focus on the trends and incidence of induced abortions, family planning, contraception, and STDs. National data were obtained by sending questionnaires to the medical statistics bureau of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Russian Family Planning Association. Also, annual official statistical reports and the annual statistics from Estonian, Finnish, and Swedish abortion registers were used. The different reproductive health situations in the Baltic area countries prove that the cornerstones for improved reproductive health (low incidence of abortions, teenage pregnancies, and STDs) are comprehensive family planning and sex education programs, new health promotion strategies, and openness in society concerning sexuality.
English - pp. 5-17.
H. Karro, Women's Clinic, University of Tartu, Estonia.
(NORTHERN EUROPE, INDUCED ABORTION, CONTRACEPTION, SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES, SEXUALITY, HEALTH EDUCATION, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS.)
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Long-term fertility development in Baltoscandia.
The article is a short overview of some principal fertility trends in Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Sweden. Those countries, from the historical perspective, have been characterized by relatively early start of demographic transition. Also, in period of fertility transition, these countries have demonstrated rather similar developments and formed one of the most homogenous subregions in Europe in this respect. However, post-transitional fertility development has been rather desynchronized between the named countries: not only the Baltic-Scandinavian differences but also the difference between Estonia-Latvia and Lithuania as well as between Sweden and Finland has become important. The noticeable part of this heterogeneity is explained by the relatively stable cohort fertility in Estonia and Latvia while in Finland, Lithuania, and Sweden the birth cohorts have had rather divergent outcomes of their fertility careers. Currently the Baltic countries are characterized by sharp fertility decrease, accompanied by the deep structural transformation of the fertility pattern. The intense aging of fertility, particularly because of postponement of the first child, is in contrast to much smoother development of the same kind in Finland and Sweden.
English - pp. 18-34.
K. Katus, Estonian Interuniversity Population Research Centre, Tallin, Estonia.
(NORTHERN EUROPE, FERTILITY TRENDS, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION.)
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00.44.3 - STEPUKONIS, Faustas.
The development of suicides in the Scandinavian and the post-soviet Baltic countries in a postindustrial-country context.
A review of developmental trends in the suicide rate in the Baltic region and the OECD countries from the 1960s until the present is the focus of this article. The developmental trends are grouped into three typical clusters: the first, distinguished by the highest suicide rates, comprises the former Soviet countries of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Russia; the second, the Scandinavian countries as an OECD subgroup with relatively high suicide rates in regard to the OECD average; and the third, the postindustrial OECD countries as a whole, distinguished by a lower suicide level than in the previous clusters, but significantly exceeding the "third" world average.
It is argued that the post-Soviet Baltic and Scandinavian model of suicide development can be explained by Durkheim's classical suicide theory. However, explaining the postindustrial type of suicide tendencies requires acceptance of a long-lasting anomie model for the prediction of suicide rates. The discussion of long-lasting anomie features and their relation to the suicide rate is presented. The conclusion is that there are preconditions and empirical evidence for predicting the process of a declining suicide rate in the groups of the countries investigated.
English - pp. 35-46.
F. Stepukonis, Department of Social Sciences, Klaipeda University, Klaipeda, Lituania.
(NORTHERN EUROPE, WESTERN EUROPE, SUICIDE, TRENDS, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS, THEORY, SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION.)
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Mortality and causes of death in Helsinki in 1750-1865 with a comparison with Tallinn.
Between 1750 and 1865 the population of Helsinki grew from around 1,500 inhabitants to 23,500 inhabitants. Part of this growth is explained by general population growth, typical of both Finland and the rest of Europe. The fact that Helsinki grew more rapidly compared to the other towns of Finland was due to two additional factors with underlying political causes: one was the building of the fortress of Vlapori alongside the town at the end of the 1700s and the other Helsinki's becoming the capital of autonomous Finland in 1812.
The population growth of Helsinki was the result of migration gain. High mortality, was linked to the impact of contagious diseases, in particular among children. The author examines particular incidence for each causes of death.
When comparing the periods of surmortality and low mortality, one notes that the annual mortality figures of Helsinki and Tallinn are the same. This demonstrates the active contacts existing between the two towns. As a result of economic and cultural relations diversity, contagious diseases spread in the capitals of both countries, from where they spread to the adjacent regions and other towns. The roads of contagion of Tallinn and Helsinki were partly connected to St. Petersburg, which become a metropolis in the 1800s, and had extensive international contacts, which facilitated the spread of diseases to Northern Europe.
English - pp. 47-70.
(FINLAND, ESTONIA, CAPITAL CITY, HISTORY, MORTALITY TRENDS, CAUSES OF DEATH.)
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00.44.5 - FISCHER, Peter A.; MALMBERG, Gunnar.
Immobility in Sweden: Are those born in the Baltic countries less mobile than those born in Sweden or Finland?.
Traditional migration theory analyzes and explains why and when people migrate. However, most people do not move at all. We therefore discuss the explanation of immobility and suggest a new approach: the insider-advantage hypothesis. A new dataset allows us to investigate empirically (im)mobility patterns between Swedish labor market regions. From an aggregate point of view, there seem to be significant differences in mobility patterns with respect to place of birth. People born in Sweden are on average more immobile than those born abroad. This is true also for those born in Finland. The mobility of persons born in the Baltic countries, however, was only half as high as for those born in Sweden. Are Balts thus especially immobile in Sweden? Our analysis of the data suggests that distinct socio-demographic profiles rather than any origin-specific behavioral particularities explain the different mobility patterns. People living in Sweden who were born in the Baltic countries are on average older than Swedish natives. They are resident in the country for longer than most other groups of foreigners and cluster in the main metropolitan areas.
English - pp. 71-86.
P. A. Fischer, Institute for Economic Policy Research (ECOPOL), University of the Bundeswehr, Hamburg, Germany.
(NORTHERN EUROPE, IMMIGRANTS, INTERNAL MIGRATION, PLACE OF BIRTH, GEOGRAPHIC MOBILITY, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS.)
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00.44.6 - KARPPI, J. Ilari; RANTALA, Heikki.
Ethnic and social determinants of East-West migratory trends in the Baltic Sea area transition economies.
The article concentrates on social and ethnic background factors in the Baltic Sea area transition economies with special reference to Estonian-Russian relations in Estonia. The general framework of the study deals with the transition to a market economy and the effects this transition has on east-west migration. The data for the study was collected in 1996 from four major city regions in four transition countries. this article being based on findings from Tallinn and St. Petersburg. A specific aspect discussed here is the connection between ethnically-based relative deprivation and willingness to emigrate. Indeed, the Tallinn-Russians with the most notable tendency towards deprivation do indicate the highest propensity to emigrate. However, as remarked in the final section, the connections between the willingness to emigrate and factors underlying it are far more complex.
English - pp. 87-101.
J. I. Karppi and H. Rantala, Department of Regional Studies and Environmental Policy, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland.
(ESTONIA, RUSSIA, TRANSITIONAL SOCIETY, ETHNIC MINORITIES, INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, POVERTY, MIGRATION DETERMINANTS.)
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Ethnic remigration from the former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of ethnic identity and acculturation among the Ingrian Finns.
The aim of this paper is to examine the patterns of psychological acculturation and ethnic identity of Ingrian Finns -- the remigrants from the former Soviet Union -- in Finland. The article is based on a study that focused on finding out the relationship between objective criteria of ethnic identity (language, nationality, citizenship, religion) and subjective ethnic identity (self-identification, commitment) in a certain social context. The relationship between acculturation attitudes and psychological well-being was also studied. The approach of the study was qualitative, the methods used were in-depth interviews, and participant observation. The sample consisted of 40 adult Ingrian Finns living in Finland and 10 leaders of the Ingrian Association in St. Petersburg and the Ingrian Church. The results suggest that different age groups have different ethnic self-perceptions. Younger remigrants identify themselves mostly as Russians or Estonians depending on which linguistic and social environment they have lived in. Middle-aged Ingrian Finns are dealing with identity conflict: they have problems in identifying themselves ethnically and also difficulties in integrating into the Finnish society.
English - pp. 102-113.
E. Kyntäjä, Aleksanteri Institute, Finnish Centre for Russian and East-European Studies, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
(FINLAND, USSR, RETURN MIGRATION, ETHNIC GROUPS, ETHNICITY, ACCULTURATION.)
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Family dynamics in the Baltic Sea area.
The purpose of this article is to describe family dynamics in 1970-1996 in the five Baltic Sea countries of Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In addition, France, Italy, and Poland will be included in the examination as countries of comparison representing Western, Southern, and Eastern Europe. The development which has occurred in the family formation, childbirth, and dissolution of families in the Baltic Sea countries will be examined using available statistical and research data. They will be used to discuss whether family dynamics in the Baltic Sea area reflects pan-European development and how family formation in the Baltic countries has been affected by earlier cultural and religious traditions, in addition to the impact of the Soviet system.
It has been noted that, in some respects, family formation development in the Baltic Sea countries in 1970-96, concerning the development of the marriage rate, for example, has reflected pan-European development. The countries in this group are, however, quite heterogeneous in regard to their family formation development. Sweden has been a pioneer in change and Finland has usually followed behind somewhat later. In the family formation of the Baltic countries, and above all, in the age at first marriage and the age at first birth, there is clear evidence of the influence of the Soviet system. Nevertheless, there are also features of their family formation which come close to development in Western Europe more than in Eastern European countries, in general. For example, the increasing prevalence in Estonia of extramarital births is most likely a manifestation of the impact of cultural traditions. Traditions apparently have also quickened the unusually rapid change in family formation occurring in the Baltic countries after the collapse of the Soviet system.
English - pp. 114-126.
M. Ritamies, The Population Research Institute, Väestöliitto, The Family Federation of Finland, Helsinki, Finland.
(NORTHERN EUROPE, FAMILY DEMOGRAPHY, FAMILY FORMATION, FERTILITY, NUPTIALITY, CULTURAL CHANGE.)
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Real income and population prospects in the Baltic Sea area.
The nine nations bordering on the Baltic Sea differ greatly in regard to both their population and their economic situation. Russia has one hundred times the population of Estonia and in Denmark the real income per capita is six times that of Latvia. When measured by real income per inhabitant, the poor Baltic countries are about half a century behind their rich neighbors, so that there is marked economic pressure to emigrate to these rich neighboring countries. In these poor transition economies the birth rate has plummeted during the last few years and the difference in life expectancy compared to the rich neighboring countries has increased. Even in a situation of rapid economic growth, it is not at all certain that the fertility rate will return to its earlier level.
English - pp. 127-132.
P. Parkkinen, Government Institute for Economic Research, Helsinki, Finland.
(NORTHERN EUROPE, ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, PER CAPITA INCOME, TRANSITIONAL SOCIETY, FERTILITY DECLINE.)
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00.44.10 - HAAVIO-MANNILA, Elina; ROTKIRCH, Anna.
Generational and gender differences in sexual life in St. Petersburg and urban Finland.
This article is to our knowledge the first empirical comparison of sexual behavior in Eastern and Western Europe. The timing of some sexual life events, sexual behavior patterns, and sexual satisfaction will be compared on the basis of survey data and sexual autobiographies from urban Finland and St. Petersburg (former Leningrad) in Russia. We were interested in the impact of the so-called sexual revolution taking place in public life in different decades -- in Western Europe and Finland in the 1960s, in Russia in the late 1980s. We assumed that this difference would appear as country differences in "traditional" vs. "liberated" sexual behavior, and especially in the sexual satisfaction of women. This hypothesis proved generally to be true, but with several important modifications. The sexual behavior and attitudes in St. Petersburg are shown to have liberalized about 15 years later than in Finnish towns. While the sexual behavior of men and women has become almost similar in Finland, the trend towards equalization of sexual life is not as clear in Russia. Divorce and parallel relationships are more common in Russia, while the number of sexual partners and overall sexual satisfaction is higher in Finland. Country, gender, and generation are the main independent variables of the statistical elaborations. The biographical material is used for exemplifying and interpretative purposes.
English - pp. 133-160.
E. Haavio-Mannila, Department of Sociology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
(FINLAND, RUSSIA, URBAN ENVIRONMENT, SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR, SEXUAL SATISFACTION, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS.)
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00.44.11 - PAPP, Krista; KONTULA, Osmo; KOSUNEN, Elise.
Teenagers' sexuality in Estonia and Finland in the 1990s.
The present study assessed adolescent knowledge of sexual issues and sexual behavior in Estonia and Finland. The Estonian survey was conducted among students in the final grade of comprehensive school in March 1994, with a questionnaire translated from the Finnish KISS-92 study. The Estonian sample comprised 532 boys and 548 girls 15.0 years old on average; part of the Finnish KISS group of 1992, covering 680 boys and 687 girls 15.8 years old on average, served for comparison. Significance of difference was tested. Estonian adolescents were found to have significantly less sexual experiences than their Finnish counterparts. At the same time quite a large proportion of the Estonian adolescents were attitudinally ready to start sexual intercourse. From this point of view, it is alarming that knowledge of sexual issues was poor among Estonian adolescents: only one out of ten respondents had good and about one-half had poor knowledge of sexual issues. A good level of knowledge was five times more common among Finnish boys compared to Estonian boys. Among girls the difference was eightfold, respectively.
English - pp. 161-172.
K. Papp, Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
(ESTONIA, FINLAND, SEXUALITY, ADOLESCENTS, SEX EDUCATION, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS.)
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