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France (Paris) 46
POPULATION
MAY-JUNE 1998 ? 53th YEAR, NUMBER 3
99.46.1 - French - Emmanuelle CAMBOIS, Jean-Marie ROBINE, Equipe Inserm, D?mographie et Sant?, Montpellier (France), and Nicolas BROUARD, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
Life expectancies applied to specific statuses: A history of the indicators and the methods of calculation (Les esp?rances de vie appliqu?es ? des statuts sp?cifiques : historique des indicateurs et des m?thodes de calcul) (p. 447-476)
Indicators of life expectancy applied to specific statuses, such as the state of health or professional status, were introduced at the end of the 1930s and are currently the object of renewed interest. Because they relate mortality to different domains (health, professional activity ...) applied life expectancies reflect simultaneously the demographic dynamic of a population and the evolution of its functional characteristics. This article presents a historical survey of the methods of calculation and the indicators they have produced. These methods are organized into three groups: single-decrement life table methods, multiple-decrement life table methods, and increment-decrement life table methods. Each of these possesses its particular characteristics, strengths and weaknesses. The choice of method will depend on the aims pursued and the data that is available. Data from cohort surveys - so-called 'flow' information - can be used to construct multiple-decrement tables or increment-decrement tables, which are accurate but based on a complicated methodology. Data from cross-sectional surveys - so-called 'stock' information - necessitate the use of single decrement tables, based on a methodology that is straightforward and robust but which introduces a bias. Choosing between these methods involves weighing the indicator's ease of application against the error size involved, and according to the aims of the study. (METHODOLOGY, LIFE EXPECTANCY, MORTALITY, HEALTH, OCCUPATIONS, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS)
99.46.2 - French - Paul ARCHAMBAULT, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: Paul.Archambault@gecapital.com
Depressive and suicidal states in young people: Results from a socio-demographic survey of the 25-34 year age group (?tats d?pressifs et suicidaires pendant la jeunesse : r?sultats d'une enqu?te socio-d?mographique chez les 25-34 ans) (p. 477-516)
Growing up is marked by the complicated process of conflicting and sometimes painful adjustments to the norms of the adult world. Young adults who experience depressive problems often suffer from structural weaknesses in their basic 'emotional capital'. This article shows that the inability to reach a compromise between the generations is responsible for affective deficiencies which make it harder to accomplish the transition to social independence.
Young people aged 25-34 were questioned about their backgrounds and about the events which had marked their lives. These biographical data, in the form of subjective statements collected by INED in 1993 ('Coming of age' survey) are used to evaluate the highly disparate nature of the itineraries of young people growing up. The disappointments, failures, setbacks and uncertainty which characterize these itineraries are evaluated in order to measure their long-term impact on the psychological health of the young adult.
The article analyses the disruptions in family life that are responsible for the deep-rooted causes of personality disorders at the time of the transition to adulthood. These underlying causes interact with the contingent causes represented by the personal experiences of the individuals questioned (unemployment, relationship breakdown), and the measurement and interpretation of these interactions is the subject of subsequent discussion. (FRANCE, YOUTH, EVENT HISTORY SURVEYS, MENTAL DEPRESSION, SUICIDE, PSYCHOLOGY)
99.46.3 - French - No?l BONNEUIL, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: bonneuil@ciloas.ined.fr
Reconstructing the female population of the department of H?rault between 1856 and 1906 using data from the Statistique G?n?rale de la France (Reconstruire la population f?minine du d?partement de l'H?rault entre 1856 et 1906 ? partir des donn?es de la Statistique g?n?rale de la France) (p. 517-534)
The reconstruction of populations on the basis of imperfect statistics encounters problems notably in the form of under-registration, age-heaping, and the difficulty of estimating migrations. In a recent book dealing with all of France's departments we presented a solution which involved a minimum of modification to the raw data and which enabled demography's fundamental equations to be satisfied. This article applies that approach to the case of the H?rault department, where the statistics for the middle of the nineteenth century are particularly poor. The exact nature of the difficulties is explored and a rigorous solution set out. (FRANCE, ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, METHODOLOGY, POPULATION RECONSTRUCTION)
The 'Ethnic' Variable in Statistical Classification
99.46.4 - French - Patrick SIMON, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: simon@ined.fr
Nationality and origins in French statistics: The ambiguities of categories (Nationalit? et origine dans la statistique fran?aise : les cat?gories ambigu?s) (p. 541-568)
The categories used in the social sciences for the description and analysis of the phenomena linked to 'immigration' have undergone far-reaching transformations in recent years. After the exclusive use for over a century of a classification based on legally defined nationality, the introduction of the category of 'immigrant' marked a first break from the French statistical tradition. A second, more radical break will occur with the introduction of references to origins, that is to an individual's ancestry, a situation that is now evolving rapidly. These changes are occurring in a context characterized by the mismatch of the systems of vital registration and categorization created to satisfy different and ultimately unscientific imperatives.
To understand the gap that has developed between the categorization used in the official statistics and the scientific questions about migration and its long-term consequences for French society, we examine the history of the classification of immigrant populations. This overview points to the influence of the national model on the categories employed in the social sciences. The second part of the article explores the strengths and weaknesses of the various categories used in the quantitative studies of social phenomena that involve 'immigrants' or people of 'immigrant origin'. The problems associated with the construction of categories based on the origins, usually ethnic, of individuals are examined by means of a non-exhaustive catalogue of recent survey applications. (FRANCE, DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTICS, CLASSIFICATION, NATIONALITY, ETHNIC ORIGIN, IMMIGRATION)
99.46.5 - French - Alain BLUM, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: blum@ined.fr
The description of immigrants and some recent research on immigration (Comment d?crire les immigr?s ? ? propos de quelques recherches sur l'immigration) (p. 569-588)
This article examines the relevance of the categories used, and the conclusions that are reached, in two books which have analyzed the behavioural factors of immigrant populations: Faire France by Mich?le Tribalat and Le Destin des immigr?s by Emmanuel Todd. By means of a detailed analysis of the origins of the terms and classifications on which these studies are based, and of their analytical frameworks, the author demonstrates how the categories employed are often intended to 'justify' an established point of view and overlook the multi-dimensional character of immigration. It is suggested that the demonstrations given are less the result of an in-depth analysis than the reflection of a preconceived idea of differentiations and as such are integral to the definition of the groups. (FRANCE, IMMIGRATION, TERMINOLOGY, CLASSIFICATION)
99.46.6 - French - Jean-Louis RALLU, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: rallu@ined.fr
The statistical categories used in the DOM-TOM since the beginning of French administration (Les cat?gories statistiques utilis?es dans les DOM-TOM depuis le d?but de la pr?sence fran?aise) (p. 589-608)
The statistical classification of the colonial populations, whose origins can be traced back to slavery, reflects the status of the populations: free settlers, slaves, coolies, bondsmen, etc. The indigenous populations had their rights to the land abolished, and were given special legal statutes.
Classification according to ethnicity continues these distinctions: the hierarchy of skin colour or ethnic origins reflects the social hierarchy. When this classification does not allow for multi-racial marriage and identifies individuals on the basis of a single ancestral origin, it becomes an instrument for compartmentalizing the population and maintaining the social status quo. In the countries which experience immigration, the various statutes - citizen, legal resident, refugee, etc. - reflect a social hierarchy that appears related to differences in access to the labour market. (FRANCE, COLONIAL COUNTRIES, DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTICS, CLASSIFICATION, ETHNIC ORIGIN, SOCIAL STRATIFICATION)
99.46.7 - French - Didier LASSALLE, IUT de Villetaneuse, Universit? Paris XIII, av. J.-B. Cl?ment, 93430 Villetaneuse (France)
E-mail: lassalle@iutv.univ-paris13.fr
The gradual generalization of the collection of ethnic statistics in the United Kingdom (La g?n?ralisation progressive du recueil de statistiques ethniques au Royaume-Uni) (p. 609-630)
The United Kingdom explicitly acknowledges the existence of 'minority ethnic groups' within its national population. The main official reason for the ethnic question included for the first time in the 1991 census was to improve socio-demographic understanding of these populations and their handicaps, so as to help in the creation of specific policies intended to favour their integration. However, the ethnic question presents numerous limitations and defects, which have been revealed by the Census Validation Survey conducted immediately after the census. For example, the classification used prevents the correct identification of people of mixed origin or of their children, and the coverage rate varies with the geographical localization, age, sex and ethnic origin of individuals. Despite these shortcomings, most of the surveys which already existed have adopted this new standard and the ethnic classification of the British population has spread to all fields of social analysis. It may be noted that statisticians are working to solve the problems encountered, by refining the formulation of the ethnic question in preparation for the next census in 2001. (UNITED KINGDOM, ETHNIC MINORITIES, CENSUSES, CLASSIFICATION)
99.46.8 - French - Annabel DESGR?ES du LO?, Orstom, 04 BP 293, Abidjan 04 (C?te d'Ivoire)
E-mail: annabel@abidjan.orstom.ci
Reproductive health and AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa: Problems and prospects (Sant? de la reproduction et sida en Afrique subsaharienne : enjeux et d?fis) (p. 701-730)
The AIDS epidemic and the associated prevention campaigns have profoundly modified the relationships between sexuality, contraception and procreation in the developing countries. Based on a survey of the literature on the subject, this article gives a synthesis of the state of knowledge and research about the impact of the epidemic on reproductive health in the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, and the lessons to be drawn for the elaboration of health programmes. T he AIDS epidemic is extremely widespread in these countries (the proportion of pregnant women infected with the HIV virus is often over 10%), affecting all sections of the population and in a family context that differs from that of the developed countries, characterized by a high incidence of polygamy and marriage breakdown and a limited decision-making role for women. The epidemic has the potential to modify sexual and matrimonial behaviour, but can also, by its indirect effect on the structure of the population and its direct effect on the reproductive physiology, influence individual and group fertility. AIDS is one of the most serious public health problems facing many African countries, and an urgent need exists for an integrated approach to its prevention in the various programmes designed to improve reproductive health. In particular, it is important than close links be quickly established between anti-AIDS programmes, and family planning and maternal and child health programmes (MCH). (AFRICA SOUTH OF SAHARA, AIDS, RESEARCH, MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH)
99.46.9 - French - Shoshana GROSSBARD-SHECHTMAN, Department of Economics, College of Arts and Letters, SDSU, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4485 (U.S.A.), and Clive W. J. GRANGER
Women's jobs and marriage: Baby-boom versus baby-bust (Travail des femmes et mariage : du baby-boom au baby-bust) (p. 731-752)
Studies of the determinants of labor supply do not typically include characteristics of the marriage market. What inspired this paper is Shoshana Grossbard-Shechtman's economic theory of marriage which considers how marriage market forces influence individual value of time in marriage. From pioneering work by Louis Henry and others, we know that changes in cohort size influence marriage market conditions. Consequently, it is hypothesized that changes in cohort size influence the value of time of women in marriage. Given that most women are married or plan to marry, this analysis implies that women born at times of increases in the number of births will be more likely to participate in the labor force. This hypothesis was using U.S. time series data on women's labor force participation and a number of other variables known to have an impact on labor supply. It is found that rapid increases in women's labor force participation coincided with rapid growth of the population entering marriage markets and therefore the creation of marriage market imbalances favoring men. Such rapid growth in population characterized not only the post World War II so-called baby-boom, but also an earlier period of growth in births starting in the late 1930s. As for the slow growth in women's labor force participation observed in recent years, it has coincided with the coming of age of successive generations of shrinking size born during the baby-bust. (UNITED STATES, MARRIAGEABLE POPULATION, FEMALE GENERATIONS, GENERATION EFFECT, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT)
Demographic Situation in France
99.46.10 - French - Catherine de GUILBERT-LANTOINE and Henri LERIDON, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: lantoine@ined.fr
Contraception in France: a balance-sheet of 30 years of liberalization (La contraception en France : un bilan apr?s 30 ans de lib?ralisation) (p. 785-812)
Contraception was legalized in France by a law adopted at the end of 1967. Contraceptive methods, in particular the pill, then spread rapidly. The most recent survey, conducted in 1994 (Ined/Insee), provides material to review the current state of contraceptive practices. C ontraception is now practiced at all ages: less than 5% of women are exposed to the risk of an unwanted pregnancy. Contraceptive use in first sexual intercourse is observed to have increased greatly over successive generations. C ontraception today is practiced mainly by women and takes a medical form: use of the pill has become widespread, particularly among young people; the IUD appears as the follow-on method once the family has been formed; traditional methods are now marginal; use of the condom is on the increase, particularly among young people and single people, for whom it is often used in conjunction with the pill, being both a means of contraception and a protection against sexually transmitted diseases. (FRANCE, CONTRACEPTIVE PREVALENCE, SURVEYS)
99.46.11 - French - Magalie BARBIERI, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: barbieri@ined.fr
Infant mortality in France (La mortalit? infantile en France) (p. 813-838)
The twentieth century has witnessed an extraordinary victory over infant and child mortality. This process accelerated after the Second World War. The advances were achieved first mainly in post-neo-natal mortality, then, from the 1960s, came a rapid fall in early neo-natal mortality. The fall in post-neo-natal mortality was without any doubt the result of improved living conditions and of increasingly effective action against infectious and respiratory diseases. From the end of the 1960s, the continued fall in infant mortality resulted primarily from better medical care during pregnancy and birth, and the considerable progress in neo-natal care techniques. The level is now so low that there can be only limited scope for future progress. However, child survival could further be improved by a reduction in the still significant social and geographical differentials. (FRANCE, INFANT MORTALITY, MORTALITY DECLINE, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS)
SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1998 ? 53th YEAR, NUMBER 5
99.46.12 - French - Chris GALLEY and Robert WOODS, D?partement de g?ographie, Universit? de Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX (U.K.)
E-mail: riwoods@liverpool.ac.uk
Reflections on the distribution of deaths in the first year of life (R?flexions sur la distribution des d?c?s au cours de la premi?re ann?e de vie) (p. 921-946)
This article reexamines the thesis first put forward by Jean Bourgeois-Pichat according to which the distribution of deaths in the first year of life is governed by a universal law. An examination of data from a number of countries for both past and present populations, shows no such single and universal distribution, though it does reveal the existence of a number of distinct patterns which are subject to change over time.
The disparity between the observed data and those predicted by 'Bourgeois-Pichat's law' cannot be taken as a systematic guide to the quality of the data, although it may provide a clue to the problems affecting these data. Lastly, an examination of the distribution of infant deaths remains an effective method for explaining the changes and variations occurring in the infant mortality rates of past and present populations. (METHODOLOGY, INFANT MORTALITY)
99.46.13 - French - Brigitte BACCA?NI and Denise PUMAIN, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: baccaini@ined.fr
Migrations in the French Urban System, 1982-1990 (Les migrations dans le syst?me des villes fran?aises de 1982 ? 1990) (p. 947-978)
Analysis of inter-urban migration flows has identified remarkable stabilities in both geographical pattern and social composition. More than 2 million migrants moved between the 110 main French towns and cities in the period 1982-1990, but only a very small proportion of these movements had any direct effect on the quantitative changes in the population of these urban centres. They can therefore be considered as merely movements of substitution.
However, by analyzing the sometimes very minor deviations between the flows actually observed and the flows predicted by the aggregate models (of the gravity model type), it is possible to measure the impact of these migrations on the differential growth and social transformation of the cities. From this it emerges that the cities of the west and the south are simultaneously more attractive and more propulsive than predicted by a gravity model. By contrast, the northern cities and metropolises, are less attractive and less propulsive.
In the short-term, the migrations affecting the main urban centres have little impact on their social structure. Analysis of the deviations from the gravity models applied to the migrations of the different socio-occupational groups provides a more sensitive measure of the unequal attractive and propulsive power that the cities have for these categories. (FRANCE, URBAN-URBAN MIGRATION, URBAN DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL STRUCTURE)
99.46.14 - French - Kuakuvi GB?NYON, FASEG, Universit? du B?nin, B.P. 1515, Lom? (Togo)
Effects of age reporting errors on application of the Brass method for estimating fertility in Africa (Effets des erreurs d'?ge sur l'application de la m?thode de Brass ? l'estimation de la f?condit? en Afrique) (p. 979-994)
With the aim of improving our knowledge of fertility levels, William Brass in the 1970s sought to overcome the defects of African fertility data by developing the method of fertility estimation which is named after him. Following the publication of his method, it became widely used both in teaching and in the field. However, the persistence of many kinds of errors, particularly those concerning the ages of individuals, even in recent data, raises questions about the value of the method when dealing with errors on age reporting. The simulations we have performed suggest that such errors introduce bias into the results obtained with the method. More specifically, the Brass P/F ratio method is found to result almost always in an overestimation of the total fertility rate. (AFRICA, METHODOLOGY, FERTILITY MEASUREMENTS, ERRORS, AGE)
NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1998 ? 53th YEAR, NUMBER 6
99.46.15 - French - France MESL? and Jacques VALLIN, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)
E-mail: mesle@ined.fr
Evolution and geographical variations in excess male mortality: From the French paradox to the Russian logic (?volution et variations g?ographiques de la surmortalit? masculine. Du paradoxe fran?ais ? la logique russe) (p. 1079-1102)
The last century and in particular the period from the 1950s to the 1980s, has seen a considerable rise in excess male mortality in western countries at the same time as an increase in life expectancy, suggesting that women have gained more than men from health improvements. Throughout this period, however, an apparently contradictory phenomenon has been observed in the geographical variations - namely, the higher the life expectancy, the smaller the gender difference in mortality. This paradox - especially strong in France - is due to the fact that the causes of death which dominate the geography of mortality are not the same as those responsible for most of the increase in life expectancy. The former are primarily male causes of death, the most important of which is alcoholism, while the latter are primarily cardio-vascular diseases and cancers, progress in which has tended to benefit women.
By contrast, in the Eastern European countries, and especially Russia, where mortality has risen during the last thirty years, the geography of mortality is entirely consistent with the evolution in life expectancy. The same causes of death (in particular those related to alcohol and violence) are responsible both for the geographical variations in the gender difference and in large part for the deterioration of the country's health condition. (FRANCE, RUSSIA, DIFFERENTIAL MORTALITY, SEX DIFFERENTIALS, MORTALITY TRENDS, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, CAUSES OF DEATH)
99.46.16 - French - Patrick HEUVELINE, Population Research Center, NORC, 1155 E. 60th Street, Chicago, IL 60637 (U.S.A.)
The unbearable uncertainty of numbers: Estimating the deaths in the Khmer Rouge period (L'insoutenable incertitude du nombre : estimations des d?c?s de la p?riode Khmer rouge) (p. 1103-1118)
This article presents the different methods used to estimate mortality during the Khmer Rouge period. They are of two main types: the sampling method and the 'residual' method. The former is based on interviews in order to estimate the proportion of survivors among the close family members of the respondents. In the second approach, mortality is not actually observed but is measured indirectly by comparing changes in the size of population with births and international migrations.
Estimates of the excess mortality in this period are usually higher with the former method (between 1.5 and 2 million) than with the second (1 million or less). This article assesses the respective advantages of the two approaches, and attempts to explain the apparent incompatibility of the existing estimates while considering the uncertainty that is inherent to any measurement procedure.
In the context of Cambodia, slightly more robust results are likely to be obtained with the residual approach, but the survey data also supply information about causes of death. A breakdown by causes is harder when deaths are estimated by the residual method though violent deaths can be calculated by applying a hypothesis about the underlying age structure of mortality. For Cambodia, the results obtained with this approach seem to be fully compatible with those obtained by the sampling method. (CAMBODIA, MORTALITY MEASUREMENT, ESTIMATES, METHODOLOGY)
99.46.17 - French - Jacqueline MARTIN, UFR Sciences, Espaces et Soci?t?s, D?partement d'?conomie, 5 all?es Antonio-Machado, 31058 Toulouse Cedex 1 (France)
Family policy and working mothers: A historical perspective 1942-1982 (Politique familiale et travail des m?res de famille : perspective historique 1942-1982) (p. 1119-1154)
A historical perspective and a consideration of the socio-institutional context are used to show the development of an opposition to married women going out to work, with the aim of keeping them in the role of full-time mothers, housewives and childrearers. This historical process influenced the family policy adopted in the 1940s, which appears as the product of half a century of debate over the place of married women in the home or the workplace.
An examination of the bases of the economic policy in favour of families introduced after 1945, and using unpublished data about the Allocation de Salaire Unique (Single Salary Allowance), shows the ASU to be the centre piece of the pronatalist project, based primarily on an economic policy designed to discourage women from engaging in paid work once married. Because the allowance was made progressive depending on the child's rank, the disincentive to labour force participation varied with the number of dependent children as well as evolving over time according to changes in family policy.
Calculating the level and evolution of family allowances in relation to female wage rates, for three sizes of family, leads to a revision of earlier interpretations about changes in female labour force participation in the post-war period. (FRANCE, WOMEN'S STATUS, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, WAGES, FAMILY ALLOWANCES, PRONATALIST POLITICY)
99.46.18 - French - Myriam KHLAT, INED, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France), Catherine SERMET, Centre de recherche, d'?tude et de documentation en ?conomie de la sant? (Credes), Paris (France), and Dominique LAURIER, Laboratoire d'?pid?miologie et d'analyse du d?triment sanitaire, 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses (France)
E-mail: khlat@ined.fr
Morbidity in households of North African origin, based on the Insee health survey, 1991-1992 (La morbidit? dans les m?nages originaires du Maghreb, sur la base de l'enqu?te Sant? de l'Insee, 1991-1992) (p. 1155-1184)
Using data from the Insee-Credes Health Survey for 1991-92, this article describes the morbidity and other health-related indicators of households whose head is of North African origin. All the analyses are adjusted by age and socio-occupational category and a comparison is made with members of French-headed households. Members of households whose head is of North African origin are found to report far fewer illnesses, the disparity being greater for men than for women. An examination of the differences by the chapters in the classification of illnesses reveals a remarkable protection of men with respect to diseases of the circulatory system, whereas women have a disproportionate risk of endocrine and metabolic diseases. As regards the health risk factors, the analysis shows that male members of these households smoke as much as those of the reference group but the women significantly less. On the other hand, the latter have a weight problem, the proportion who are obese being twice that of the group of French-headed households. These findings are consistent with those from an earlier study of differential mortality of Moroccan immigrants in France and are discussed in terms of misreporting, selection effects and factors of protection. (FRANCE, NORTHERN AFRICA, IMMIGRANTS, MORBIDITY)
99.46.19 - French - Mohamed DOUIDICH, Direction de la statistique, BP 178, Rabat (Morocco)
E-mail: mdouidich@statistic.gov.ma
Employment, unemployment and family strategies in Morocco (Emploi, ch?mage et strat?gies familiales au Maroc) (p. 1185-1206)
The growing number of family businesses in Morocco is noteworthy for two reasons: unemployment is three times lower among the households which own a family business, and two in three jobs are in this sector of the economy. An analysis of the demographic and socio-occupational structure of the household and of the logics responsible for the family unit operating as both labour supply and source of work, help to elucidate the employment strategies of Moroccan families.
These strategies are highly diverse, heavily based on pluriactivity, and involve employing the less competitive members in the family business while encouraging the more able into better paid salaried positions. However, this system is coming under pressure as family employment is found to be incompatible with the profile of the young members, who are tending to opt for a statute which 'liberates' them from the bonds of dependence that accompany working in the family business. This change is likely to reveal the limits of the family business as an alternative source of employment and factor of family cohesion, unless the capital accumulated can be used to finance a genuinely dynamic economic activity. (MOROCCO, HOUSEHOLD, EMPLOYMENT, FAMILY LABOUR, WAGE EARNERS)
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