JOURNAL OF BIOSOCIAL SCIENCE

United Kingdom (Cambridge) 55

JANUARY 1995 - VOLUME 27, NUMBER 1

96.55.1 - English - Nicholas J. PARR, Demographic Research Group, School of Economic and Financial Studies, Macquarie University, Sydney (Australia)

Pre-marital fertility in Liberia (p. 1-10)

This analysis of the 1986 Liberia Demographic and Health Survey data finds remarkably high fertility levels among women who have never married or lived with a man, reflecting widespread premarital sex and a lack of use of contraception. It is found that single Liberian women are more likely to foster out children than married Liberian women of the same age. (LIBERIA, PREMARITAL BIRTHS, FOSTERING)

96.55.2 - English - Cecil A. KLUFIO, Apeawusu B. AMOA and Grace KARIWIGA, Division of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Port Moresby General Hospital (Papua New Guinea) A survey of Papua New Guinean parturients at the Port Moresby general hospital: Family planning (p. 11-18)

A survey of 673 consecutive Papua New Guinean parturients at the Port Moresby General Hospital, in May and June 1990, showed that 28% had ever used a family planning (FP) method, chiefly a hormonal method (93% of ever-users). Only seventeen of 239 (7.1%) nulliparae had ever used an FP method, compared with 170 of 434 (39.2%) parous subjects. Education of mother and of husband were independently and significantly associated with FP ever-use. Seventeen (4.9%) of 347 women who had a surviving child, had not breast-fed the child. The interval between the birth of the surviving child and the start of the index pregnancy was significantly associated with the duration of breast-feeding; the longer the duration of breast-feeding, the longer the inter birth interval. (PAPUA NEW GUINEA, CONTRACEPTIVE USAGE, PARITY, LEVELS OF EDUCATION, BREAST FEEDING)

96.55.3 - English - Babatunde A. AHONSI, Department of Sociology, University of Lagos (Nigeria) Age variations in the proximate determinants of child mortality in South-West Nigeria (p. 19-30)

Age variations in the influences of three sets of proximate factors on child survival in Ondo State, Nigeria, during 1981-86 are described. Biodemographic factors covary very strongly with mortality risks during the first month of life, weakly during months 1-11, and imperceptibly beyond infancy. Microenvironmental factors progressively strongly covary with mortality after the neonatal period, while health services accessibility and care factors broadly covary strongly with mortality throughout early childhood. Patterns in the size of the hypothetical population-level impacts of these factors suggest that promoting assisted use of toilet facilities within households by under-5s and wider provision of dispensaries and hospitals would yield cost-effective and notable reductions in overall childhood mortality levels in the study setting. (NIGERIA, INFANT MORTALITY, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS, AGE)

96.55.4 - English - M. MURPHY, London School of Economics, Houghton Street, Londres (U.K.) Sterilisation as a method of contraception: Recent trends in Great Britain and their implications (p. 31-46)

Data on patterns and trends in sterilisation in Britain among women, men and couples are presented using life table approaches with data from a national survey, the General Household Survey. Among couples under age 50, sterilisation is the main method of contraception used, with slightly more women than men being sterilised, although this is reversed if only contraceptive sterilisation is considered. Trends in contraception have remained relatively constant in recent decades. Patterns of sterilisation differ following births of different orders. For example, the resort to sterilisation is much quicker after a third birth than after a second. The proportions of men and women who have been sterilised and then formed a subsequent partnership are very small, so the effect of sterilisation in preventing births in such unions is negligible. (UNITED KINGDOM, SEXUAL STERILIZATION)

96.55.5 - English - William K. A. AGYEI, The Futures Group, Washington, DC (U.S.A.), and Micheal MIGADDE, Institute of Statistics and Applied Economics, Makerere University, Kampala (Uganda) Demographic and sociocultural factors influencing contraceptive use in Uganda (p. 47-60)

Bivariate and multivariate analyses of the influence of demographic and sociocultural factors on contraceptive knowledge, attitudes and practice among currently married respondents in Uganda show that: (i) contraceptive knowledge is widespread, even among women with no education; (ii) the majority of the respondents have favourable attitudes towards contraceptive use; (iii) the level of contraceptive use is low in comparison with knowledge and attitudes. Post-primary education, ethnicity, residence, the presence of the spouse in the household and discussion of family planning with spouse were strong predictors of knowledge and favourable attitudes towards contraception. Secondary or higher education, discussion of family planning with spouse and urban residence strongly influenced contraceptive use, but child mortality did not. The use of condoms as a behavioural change to avoid contracting HIV/AIDS was low. The results suggest that, particularly in rural areas, family planning services are not meeting the needs of potential clients. (UGANDA, KNOWLEDGE OF CONTRACEPTIVES)

96.55.6 - English - M. ALVAREZ EDO and E. SANCHEZ COMPADRE, Department of Animal Biology, Anthropology Section, Faculty of Biology, University of Leon (Spain) Biodemographic alterations derived from reservoir building in a rural settlement in Spain (p. 61-70)

The building of dams to collect water for hydroelectricity and irrigation brings about environmental alterations and hence the appearance of a new ecosystem. These changes affect the human environment and result in demographic, social and economic alterations of the original settlements. In the mountainous regions of Palencia in the north of Spain, three dams have been built this century. This paper analyses the biodemographic modifications in the settlement directly affected by the construction of these dams, and compares it with nearby control settlements with similar demographic and social structure, in order to establish the effects of the flooding of extensive areas. (SPAIN, ENVIRONMENT, RURAL PLANNING, SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES, ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS)

96.55.7 - English - Bhanu B. NIRAULA, Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphie (U.S.A.) Old age security and inheritance in Nepal: Motives versus means (p. 71-78)

This paper documents expectations of old age support in rural Nepal. Current living arrangements of the elderly have been analysed with a focus on the ownership of land holdings. It is argued that the intergenerational transfer of property through inheritance from the older to the younger generation, especially among sons, together with the Nepali normative prescription that sons care for their aged parents, provides a mechanism for old age support. However, land is becoming a scarce resource, cultural traditions are breaking down through modernisation and the living conditions of the elderly are likely to deteriorate as this process continues. (NEPAL, AGED, SOCIAL SECURITY, INHERITANCE, MODERNIZATION, LIVING CONDITIONS)

96.55.8 - English - E. J. CLEGG and J. F. CROSS, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen (U.K.) Religion and fertility in the Outer Hebrides (p. 79-94)

Estimates of fertility in Protestant Barra and Catholic Harris, islands in the Outer Hebrides, over the period 1856-1985, show that in both islands fertility declined, although marital fertility was generally greater than in Scotland as a whole, and illegitimate fertility was less. However, in Barra during 1966-75 there were pronounced rises in all the indices; illegitimate fertility showed the smallest rise. The publication of the papal encyclical Humanae Vitae may have played a part in this change in fertility, although other, probably local, factors must have been acting, as the first rise in numbers of births occurred before the publication of the encyclical. Other than this transient rise, the religious difference between Hards and Barra had little effect on changes in fertility over the whole period. Indices of proportions married showed declines until after World War II, followed by steep increases. The marked decline in fertility in both islands may be due in part to this low nuptiality. In addition, a trend of occupation away from traditional crofting and fishing towards more skilled mercantile and professional employment may have played a role. (SCOTLAND, FERTILITY DECLINE, DIFFERENTIAL FERTILITY, RELIGION, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS)

96.55.9 - English - Nyovani J. MADISE and Ian DIAMOND, Department of Social Statistics, University of Southampton (U.K.) Determinants of infant mortality in Malawi: An analysis to control for death clustering within families (p. 95-106)

The 1988 Malawi Traditional and Modern Methods of Child Spacing Survey data are used to identify determinants of infant mortality in Malawi. The logistic binomial analysis shows that socioeconomic factors are significant even during the neonatal period while the length of the preceding birth interval is significant in the post-neonatal period only. There is a strong familial correlation of mortality risks during both the neonatal and post-neonatal periods but the effect of geographical area of residence is stronger in the post-neonatal period. (MALAWI, INFANT MORTALITY, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS)

96.55.10 - English - John W. SHEETS A triplet maternity in a reduced population with excessive twinning (p. 117-119)

In 1991 a triplet maternity of same-sex (FFF) occurred in a depopulated community of Argyll, Scotland, with a history of excessive, same-sex twinning. Due to a stillbirth and its confidentiality, the maternity was recorded as a twin birth. Using public registers may result in under-estimation of rates for higher multiple conceptions and births in local districts. (SCOTLAND, TRIPLETS, UNDERREGISTRATION)

APRIL 1995 - VOLUME 27, NUMBER 2

96.55.11 - English - Benjamin C. CAMPBELL, Department of Anthropology, Binghamton University, NY (U.S.A.), and J. Richard UDRY, Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC (U.S.A.) Stress and age at menarche of mothers and daughters (p. 127-134)

The hypothesis that psychological stress during early childhood leads to advanced reproductive maturation was assessed using data from the California Childhood Health and Development Study. Regression analyses failed to indicate that bed wetting, nightmares or thumb-sucking at age 5 predict age at menarche, regardless of controls for mother's age at menarche. Among socioeconomic variables suggested as contextual stressors measured at age 9-11 only mother's education was a significant predictor of daughter's age at menarche, though its effect is trivial compared to mother's age at menarche. Path analysis on a subsample of the subjects failed to demonstrate the hypothesised indirect effect of mother's age at menarche on daughter's age at menarche acting through early marriage and marital dissolution. These results cast doubt on the theory that early childhood stress is the key to divergent reproductive strategies among females based on the timing of reproductive maturation. (UNITED STATES, AGE AT MENARCHE)

96.55.12 - English - K. V. RAO and Alfred DEMARIS, Department of Sociology, Bowling Green State University, OH (U.S.A.)

Coital frequency among married and cohabiting couples in the United States (p. 135-150)

Coital frequency is studied among couples as a function of marital or cohabiting status, relationship duration, number of children, religious affiliation, income, education, fertility intentions, age, race, self-assessed health, time spent in work, and perceived relationship quality. Data are from the 1987-88 National Survey of Families and Households. Predictors of coital frequency that were stable across several analyses were male's and female's ages, the duration of the relationship, and the male partner's self-assessed health. When the discrepancy in partners' reports was adjusted, cohabitation status, number of children, future fertility intentions, religious affiliation, and relationship quality as assessed by the female partner were significant. The results suggest a substantial idiosyncratic component to the determination of coital frequency in relationships. (UNITED STATES, COITAL FREQUENCY, MARITAL STATUS)

96.55.13 - English - O. A. C. VIEGAS, W. P. LEONG, Y. T. CHIA, S. C. YEOH and S. S. RATNAM, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, National University Hospital, Singapore (Singapore)

Ethnicity and obstetric performance in Singapore (p. 151-162)

The influence of ethnicity on obstetric performance in Singapore was assessed by retrospective analysis of all deliveries in the National University Hospital over a 7-year period. Malay mothers were younger, shorter, less educated, of higher parity, were more likely to have had no antenatal care, and had the highest incidence of premature labour. However, mothers of Indian origin had the smallest babies, the highest incidence of low birth weight and significantly higher perinatal mortality rates. Chinese mothers fared better than their Malay and Indian counterparts in all parameters assessed. The ethnic origin of the mother has an important bearing on perinatal performance. This emphasises the importance of designing appropriate strategies to improve perinatal health in the different ethnic groups. (SINGAPORE, ETHNIC ORIGIN, CHILDBIRTH, NEW-BORN, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS)

96.55.14 - English - Arjun ADLAKHA and Judith BANISTER, US Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC (U.S.A.)

Demographic perspectives on China and India (p. 163-178)

This paper compares levels and trends of population growth rates, age and sex composition, mortality, and fertility including family planning practices in the world's two most populous countries, China and India. Both countries are undergoing demographic transition but China is nearer than India to achieving a stationary population. Fertility in China has declined below replacement level while in India it is nearly one and a half children per woman above replacement level. Both countries have achieved large reductions in mortality but life expectancy at birth in China is currently about 10 years longer than in India. Both countries have young populations but China will precede India in the aging of population structure during the 21st century. (CHINA, INDIA, POPULATION FORECASTS, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, COMPRATIVE ANALYSIS)

96.55.15 - English - M. KABIR, Department of Statistics, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka (Bangladesh), Rafiquel Islam CHOWDHURY, Computer and Information Technology Institute, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka (Bangladesh), and Ruhul AMIN, University Linkage Program, Morgan State University, Baltimore (U.S.A.) Infant and child mortality levels and trends in Bangladesh (p. 179-192)

Infant and child mortality levels and trends in Bangladesh are examined using data from the 1989 Bangladesh Fertility Survey. Both infant and child mortality declined from the mid 1970s but infant mortality declined more quickly. The level of infant mortality in 1989 was around 100 per 1000 live births while child mortality (5qo) was 200 per 1000 live births. Life table analysis confirms the change in infant and child mortality. The decline in infant mortality is attributed to the introduction of improved public health measures and access to maternal and child health services. (BANGLADESH, INFANT MORTALITY, YOUTH MORTALITY, MORTALITY DECLINE, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS)

96.55.16 - English - Paul LICHTENSTEIN, Scott L. HERSHBERGER and Nancy L. PEDERSEN, Center for Development and Health Genetics, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University (U.S.A.)

Dimensions of occupations: Genetic and environmental influences (p. 193-206)

This study investigates the dimensions of occupation, and distances between occupational categories, by using intra-pair differences in adult occupational position for identical twins reared apart. Status and farm dimensions of occupation were identified. The results validate the use of occupational status as a dimension of occupational position. The causes of individual differences for the derived status dimension were also evaluated, based on groups of identical and fraternal twins reared apart or together. Genetic effects accounted for a substantial amount of the variance in occupational status for men, while shared and non-shared environmental effects were of about equal importance. For women, genetic effects were less important, and shared and non-shared environmental effects accounted for more of the variation. The results confirm that genetic effects are important sources of the familial resemblance often found for occupational status for men. (WORKING LIFE, OCCUPATIONS, GENETICS, ENVIRONMENT, TWINS)

96.55.17 - English - Cristina PADEZ and Augusto ABADE, Department of Anthropology, University of Coimbra (Portugal)

Influence of industrialisation on marital behaviour in Bedu'do (Estarreja), Portugal (p. 207-214)

From marriage records of a Northern Portuguese parish for 1900-80, endogamy and exogamy rates were calculated for birthplace and residence in order to analyse the effect of industrialisation on the population structure after 1940. Marriages that were endogamous relative to birthplace decreased between 1940-49 (58.9%) and 1988 (20.5%), while exogamy increased. Exogamous marriages in which people came from outside the municipality (51.92%) were greater than those of the surrounding region (42.04%). After industrialisation, the pattern of marriages changed for residence, with an increase in the number of individuals who came from the district to work in the factories and married. Industrialisation advanced the start of exogamy which, for most Portuguese populations, began later, in the 1960s. (PORTUGAL, INDUSTRIALIZATION, NUPTIALITY, EXOGAMY)

JULY 1995 - VOLUME 27, NUMBER 3

96.55.18 - English - Erik BOHLER, Department of Pediatrics, and Staffan BERGSTR�M, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Ullev�ll Hospital, Oslo (Norway)

Premature weaning in East Bhutan: Only if mother is pregnant again (p. 253-265)

The relationship between breast-feeding, and subsequent pregnancy in East Bhutan is examined, against the background of local attitudes to family planning. Ninety-eight mothers who had given birth 30-36 months earlier were interviewed. Semisolid supplementary feeding was introduced at a median age of 3 months. Median total duration of breast-feeding was 28 months, and day and night breast-feeding on demand was continued throughout. Median duration of postpartum amenorrhoea was 12 months, and was associated with the timing of the introduction of supplementary foods. There was a significant association between the occurrence of a subsequent pregnancy and early termination of breast-feeding. The relationships between breast-feeding pattern and pregnancy interval are complex, and their relative influence changes with time. During the first year postpartum, infertility during lactational amenorrhoea is important. During the second year there is a strong negative effect on lactation from the next pregnancy. The only important reason for ceasing to breast-feed within 2 years seems to be a new pregnancy. (BHUTAN, BREAST FEEDING, WEANING, INTERPREGNANCY INTERVAL)

96.55.19 - English - Paivi TOPO and Elina HEMMINKI, Health Research Unit, National Research Development Centre for Welfare and Health, Helsinki (Finland)

Is menopause withering away? (p. 267-276)

Menopause (cessation of menstruation) and the period surrounding it (climacterium) are often defined retrospectively by asking a woman the date of her last menstrual period (LMP). Based on a survey of 2 000 women aged 45-64 in 1989 in Finland, this study examines (1) the relation between these definitions and women's own definitions of their climacteric status and of the cessation of menstruation and (2) the effect of menopausal and postmenopausal hormone therapy and hysterectomy on the definition of menopause and climacterium. Agreement of the woman's own definition of her climacteric status and interval since LMP was 25% among current hormone users, 41% among hysterectomised women and 64% among those who were neither currently using hormones nor had been hysterectomised. Current hormone users defined the climacteric phase as longer than their LMP suggested. Current hormone use and hysterectomy had little effect on reported final cessation of menstrual periods. It is concluded that hysterectomy and hormone therapy shape women's thinking about the end of reproductive life, blur the concepts of menopause and postmenopause and confuse the measurement of age at menopause. (FINLAND, AGE AT MENOPAUSE, HORMONES, HYSTEROTOMY)

96.55.20 - English - Duolao WANG and Ian DIAMOND, Department of Social Statistics, University of Southampton (U.K.)

The impact on fertility of contraceptive failure in China in the 1980s (p. 277-284)

Contraceptive failure was an important determinant of fertility in China in the 1980s. Based on the data from the China Two-per-Thousand Fertility Survey, this study shows that about 7% of the general fertility rate of currently married women aged 15-49 for a 12-month period is attributed to contraceptive failure, mainly due to the high failure rate associated with IUD use. A number of demographic characteristics are associated with contraceptive use, and with contraceptive failure and its outcome. Relevant socioeconomic differentials are also identified. (CHINA, CONTRACEPTION FAILURES)

96.55.21 - English - M.I. ZAFAR, Population Study Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Pakistan), N. FORD and A. ANKOMAH, Institute of Population Studies, University of Exeter (U.K.)

Significance of beliefs and values in predicting fertility and contraceptive behaviour in Pakistan (p. 301-318)

A comparative study of 1 100 women aged 25-45 years, users and non-users of modern methods of contraception, in the urban centres of Lahore and Faisalabad was conducted in 1991. The objective of the study was to investigate reproductive behaviour and the extent to which social, cultural and attitudinal variables, such as beliefs and values about family life, religiosity and fatalism, influence the fertility decision-making process. Preferences for smaller families were found to be consistently associated with modern attitudes and behaviour towards family and religious values and obligations. Family income, husband's occupation and religiosity offered no explanation of reproductive behaviour. It is concluded that cultural setting, and tradition exert an important influence on reproductive behaviour, independent of economic development. (PAKISTAN, REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR, CONTRACEPTION, VALUE SYSTEMS)

96.55.22 - English - M.A. CHIEZAH and D.J. ADAMCHAK, Department of Sociology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas (U.S.A.) Unmet need for family planning in Jamaica (p. 319-324)

This study updates and extends estimates for unmet need and total demand for family planning for Jamaican women in the reproductive age group, 15-49. The findings suggest that, as yet unmet need for family planning, was 22.7%, compared to 16% previously estimated. (JAMAICA, FAMILY PLANNING, DEMAND, PROGRAMME EVALUATION)

96.55.23 - English - M. SIVARAM, J. RICHARD and P.S.S. RAO, Department of Biostatistics, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu (India) Early marriage among rural and urban females of South India (p. 325-331)

Data on 2 972 marriages in rural areas and 1 180 marriages in urban areas of North Arcot Ambedkar district of South India, during 1982-88, were analysed. The mean age at marriage of females was 18.6 in the rural and 19.6 in the urban area. The proportion of females married before attaining the legal age of 18 years was higher among the rural community (36.8%) than in the urban community (28.9%). Univariate analysis revealed an association between early age at marriage and the socioeconomic variables religion, caste, consanguinity, marital distance, spousal age difference, education and occupation of both bride and bride-room, and socioeconomic status of the family. Multivariate analysis showed an independent relationship of marital distance and bridegroom's occupation with early age at marriage of females in the rural area alone and the bridegroom's education in the urban area alone. Consanguinity, spousal age difference and bride's education were found to be independently related with early age at marriage of females in both rural and urban areas. (INDIA, EARLY MARRIAGE, RURAL-URBAN DIFFERENTIALS, SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS)

96.55.24 - English - BADARUDDOZA and M. AFZAL, Section of Genetics, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Uttar Pradesh (India) Effects of inbreeding on marriage payment in North India (p. 333-338)

This study examines the relationships between consanguineous marriages and marriage payment, using data from two Muslim qaums living in urban and rural areas in Aligarh District, Uttar Pradesh, North India. Qaum and locality were found to have no significant association with the dowry system. Marriage payment is less common in consanguineous than in non-consanguineous marriages. However, the association between marriage payment and the type of marriage is significant at p <0.001. The dowry system is more prevalent among the higher socioeconomic groups, while the bride-wealth system is more common among the lower socioeconomic groups. (INDIA, CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE, DOWRY)

96.55.25 - English - Jos� RODRIGUES, Department of Administration, Federal University of Para'ba (Brazil), and Kazuhiko MOJI, Department of Public Health, Nagasaki University School of Medicine (Japan) Factors affecting choice of sterilisation among low income women in Para'ba, Brazil (p. 339-345)

Despite the absence of a family planning programme, the prevalence of sterilisation in Brazil has increased substantially, such that it is used by relatively young women in poor areas of the country. Sterilisation is influenced more by the characteristics of the health service than by socioeconomic characteristics of the population. (BRAZIL, FEMALE STERILIZATION, POVERTY)

96.55.26 - English - Martin BROCKERHOFF, Research Division, The Population Council, New York (U.S.A.) Fertility and family planning in African cities: The impact of female migration (p. 347-358)

This study uses data from thirteen Demographic and Health Surveys to examine effects of female migration on fertility in African cities. Contrary to expectations, migration from villages and towns in the 1980s and 1990s reduced total fertility rates in African cities by about one birth, from an estimated average of 5.55 in the absence of migration to 4.59. New arrivals experience much lower fertility in their first few years in cities than long term residents of similar age and parity. This results from the initial unmarried status of most migrants, high levels of spousal separation among, new arrivals who are married, dramatic increases in use of modern methods of contraception after 2 years in cities, and continuation of traditionally long durations of postpartum abstinence. Accommodation of additional migrants thus appears consistent with efforts to reduce fertility in cities. moreover, prospects for increased contraceptive prevalence in Africa may depend heavily on changes in population distribution that influence the demand for children, specifically movement to cities. (AFRICA, CITIES, RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION, FERTILITY DECLINE, CONTRACEPTIVE USAGE)

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