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1994 - VOLUME 26, NUMBER 1

94.55.01 - English - Vibek VESTERMARK, Claus K. HOGDALL, Grete PLENOV and Mikael BIRCH, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Central Hospital, Hillerod (Denmark)

Postpartum Amenorrhoea and Breast-Feeding in a Danish Sample (p. 1-7)

The duration of postpartum amenorrhoea was studied in a Danish sample of 361 women. The median duration of amenorrhoea was 17 weeks. The 25th and 75th percentiles were 10 and 30 weeks, respectively. A significant correlation was found between the duration of postpartum amenorrhoea and of breast-feeding. However, lactation for more than 9 months did not extend the duration of amenorrhoea. Menstruation before weaning occurred in 57% of the women, and 43% terminated breast-feeding before the first menstruation. Four weeks after weaning menstruation had returned in 79% and by 8 weeks after in 93% of the mothers. At 6 months postpartum, frequency of breast-feeding, and of night-time feeding were determinants of amenorrhoea. (DENMARK, POST-PARTUM AMENORRHOEA, BREAST FEEDING, WEANING)

94.55.02 - English - A. RODRIGUEZ-LARRALDE, Laboratory of Human Genetics, IVIC, Caracas (Venezuela) et al.

Isonymy and the Genetic Structure of Sicily (p. 9-24)

The genetic structure of Sicily was analysed through the distribution of surnames of 758,793 users registered in the Italian Telephone Company, corresponding to 371 communes of the island. Estimates of the coefficient of consanguinity due to random isonymy, of Fisher's Ó, an indicator of abundance of surnames, and of Karlin-McGregor's v, an indicator of immigration rates, were obtained for each commune. Four different estimates of genetic distance between all possible pairs of communes within each province were also obtained, and their relationship with geographic distance was studied. The logarithmic transformation of Lasker's coefficient of relationship showed correlations with the log of geographic distance which range between -0.78 and -0.40; the strongest, for the province of Catania, was attributed to the presence of Mount Etna, and the weakest, for Palermo, to the high population density of this province. (ITALY, PROVINCES, POPULATION GENETICS, GENETIC DISTANCE, SPATIAL DISTANCE)

94.55.03 - English - Robert L. CISZEWSKI and Philip D. HARVEY, Population Services International and DKT International, Washingnton, DC (U.S.A.)

The Effect of Price Increases on Contraceptive Sales in Bangladesh (p. 25-35)

In April 1990, the prices of five brands of contraceptives in the Bangladesh social marketing project were increased, by an average of 60%. The impact on condom sales was immediate and severe, with sales for the following 12 months dropping by 46% from the average during the preceding 12 months. The effect on oral contraceptive sales was less dramatic: average sales in the year following the increases dropped slightly despite a previously established pattern of rapidly rising sales. There appears no reasonable combination of events other than the price increase itself to explain most of the difference. (BANGLADESH, CONTRACEPTIVE DISTRIBUTION, PRICES, SOCIAL MARKETING)

94.55.04 - English - Carol VLASSOFF, Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, WHO, Genève (Switzerland), and Elssy BONILLA, Centro de Estudios sobre Desarrollo Economico, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogota (Colombia)

Gender-Related Differences in the Impact of Tropical Diseases on Women: What Do We Know? (p. 37-53)

This paper explores the importance of gender differences in the impact of tropical diseases on women. Malaria and schistosomiasis are used as examples but most of the observations also apply to other diseases endemic to developing countries. The distinction between sex and gender is discussed and evidence of sex and gender differences in the determinants and consequences of malaria and schistosomiasis, particularly their economic, social and personal dimensions, is reviewed. Issues on which research and intervention studies are needed are identified. (SEX DIFFERENTIALS, TROPICAL DISEASES)

94.55.05 - English - Orieji CHIMERE-DAN, Department of Sociology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (South Africa)

Determinants of Racial Fertility Differentials in Some Urban Areas of South Africa (p. 55-63)

Results of a survey of some urban areas in the Pretoria-Witwatersrand-Vereenining region show differential impacts of proximate and socioeconomic factors on the fertility of urban blacks and whites. Timing of starting and ending of childbearing and the reproductive behaviour of women who have never been married account for the major differences in fertility levels. White women confine their childbearing career to the 20-39 age range, while black women utilise the entire 15-49 age range. The fertility level is quite high among black women who have never been married (in contrast to never married white women). With the exception of breast-feeding, racial patterns in other proximate determinants of fertility do not suggest the observed racial differentials in fertility. (SOUTH AFRICA, DIFFERENTIAL FERTILITY, RACES, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS)

94.55.06 - English - Richard LYNN, University of Ulster, Coleraine (Northern Ireland), and Claudia PAGLIARI, University of Buckingham, Buckingham, MK18 1EG (U.K.)

The Intelligence of American Children Is still Rising (p. 65-67)

94.55.07 - English - Sandra J. GRAY, Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas (U.S.A.)

Comparison of Effects of Breast-Feeding Practices on Birth-Spacing in Three Societies: Nomadic Turkana, Gainj and Quechua (p. 69-90)

Variation in the duration and pattern of breast-feeding contributes significantly to inter-population differences in fertility. In this paper, measures of suckling frequency and intensity are used to compare the effects of breastfeeding practices on the duration of lactational amenorrhoea, and on the length of the birth interval in three prospective studies undertaken during the 1980s, among Quechua Indians of Peru, Turkana nomads of Kenya, and Gainj of Papua New Guinea. In all three societies, lactation is prolonged well into the second year postpartum, and frequent, on-demand breast-feeding is the norm. However, the duration of lactational amenorrhoea and the length of birth intervals vary considerably. (BREAST FEEDING, POST-PARTUM AMENORRHOEA, BIRTH INTERVALS, ETHNIC GROUPS, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS)

94.55.08 - English - Sajjad A. SHAMI, Department of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad (Pakistan), Jonathan C. GRANT and Alan H. BITTLES, Biomedical Sciences Division, King's College, University of London, London (U.K.)

Consanguineous Marriage within Social/Occupational Class Boundaries in Pakistan (p. 91-96)

Data on patterns of consanguineous marriage were collected from 5 340 families resident in eight cities in the Pakistan province of Punjab. To assess whether social and/or occupational class was interacting with consanguinity, information also was obtained on the hereditary qaum to which each family belonged. In the present generation 46.5% of all marriages were contracted at the level of second cousin or closer, with an average coefficient of inbreeding (F) of 0.0286, and the results indicated that in each of the seventeen qaums there was strong preference for marriage to a close biological relative. However, significant differences existed in the distribution of consanguineous marriage by qaum membership, which could interfere with the interpretation of studies into the biological effects of inbreeding. (PAKISTAN, CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE, SOCIAL CLASSES)

94.55.09 - English - E.J. CLEGG and J.F. CROSS, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen (U.K.)

Aspects of Neonatal Death in St Kilda, 1830-1930 (p. 97-106)

Neonatal death (mainly due to tetanus) was common in St Kilda until 1891. Two aspects of this phenomenon are studied; factors which predicted death, and the impact of neonatal death on family building. Maternal age appeared to be a predictive factor for death of the first child, but only in children of high birth order were other factors, particularly the number of previous neonatal deaths, important. The first birth interval appeared to be determined mainly by the date of the first birth, independent of neonatal mortality levels. For later intervals, the neonatal death of the previous child appeared to be the main determining factor. (SCOTLAND, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, NEONATAL MORTALITY, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS, BIRTH INTERVALS)

94.55.10 - English - D.A. COLEMAN, Department of Applied Social Studies, University of Oxford, Oxford (U.K.)

Trends in Fertility and Intermarriage among Immigrant Populations in Western Europe as Measures of Integration (p. 107-136)

Demographic data on fertility and intermarriage are useful measures of integration and assimilation. This paper reviews trends in total fertility and intermarriage of foreign populations in Europe and compares them with the trends in fertility of the host population and the sending country. In almost all cases fertility has declined. The fertility of most European immigrant populations and of some West Indian and non-Muslim Asian populations has declined to a period level at or below that of the host society. Muslim populations from Turkey, North Africa and South Asia have shown the least decline. Intermarriage is proceeding faster than might be expected in immigrant populations which seemed in economic terms fo be imperfectly integrated. Up to 40% of West Indians born in the UK, for example, appear to have white partners as do high proportions of young Maghrebians in France. (WESTERN EUROPE, IMMIGRANTS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, FERTILITY DECLINE, MIXED MARRIAGE)

1994 - VOLUME 26, NUMBER 2

94.55.11 - English - M. SHAHIDULLAH, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka (Bangladesh)

Breast-Feeding and Child Survival in Matlab, Bangladesh (p. 143-154)

This study investigates the effect of both total and unsupplemented breast-feeding in conjunction with birth interval on early childhood mortality, using longitudinal data from Matlab, Bangladesh. A discrete hazard model approach shows that it is not the duration of total breast-feeding but the duration of unsupplemented breast-feeding which increases child survival. Unsupplemented breast-feeding appears as such a crucial determinant of early childhood mortality that its effect could not be substantially attenuated even when important demographic and socioeconomic factors were controlled. Each of the covariates - supplementation, previous birth interval and onset of a subsequent conception - has an independent influence on early childhood mortality. (BANGLADESH, BREAST FEEDING, BIRTH INTERVALS, INFANT MORTALITY, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS)

94.55.12 - English - Eric PERITZ, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem (Israel)

The Turlock Vitamin-Mineral Supplementation Trial: A Statistical Reanalysis (p. 155-164)

94.55.13 - English - Paul W. STUPP, Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta (U.S.A.) et al.

Ethnicity and the Use of Health Services in Belize (p. 165-177)

Data from the 1991 Belize Family Health Survey show differentials in the use of maternal and child health services between ethnic groups (Creole, Mestizo, Maya/Ketchi and Garifuna). Multivariate analysis is used to explore whether such differentials can truly be attributed to ethnicity or to other characteristics that distinguish the ethnic groups. Health services considered are: family planning, place of delivery (hospital/other), postpartum and newborn check-ups after a birth, and immunisations for children. The language usually spoken in the household is found to be important for interpreting ethnic differentials. Mayan-speaking Maya/Ketchis are significantly less likely to use family planning services or to give birth in a hospital, Spanish-speakers (Mestizos and Maya/Ketchis) are less likely to use newborn and postpartum check-ups, after controlling for other characteristics. There are no ethnic differentials for immunisations. Programmatic implications of these results are discussed. (BELIZE, MOTHER AND CHILD MORTALITY, HEALTH SERVICES, ETHNIC GROUPS)

94.55.14 - English - Joseph PACHMAN, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520 (U.S.A.), and Susan A. BELANGER, Fairfield University, Fairfield, CT 06430 (U.S.A.)

Parasitic Infections and Psychopathology: A Preliminary Hypothesis (p. 179-184)

94.55.15 - English - Cecil A. KLUFIO, Apeawusu B. AMOA and Grace KARIWIGA, Division of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, port Moresby General Hospital (Papua New Guinea)

A Survey of Papua New Guinean Parturients at the Port Moresby General Hospital: Sociodemographic and Reproductive Characteristics (p. 185-190)

A survey of 673 consecutive Papua New Guinea parturients carried out at the Port Moresby General Hospital between May and June 1990 showed that socioeconomic and educational factors played a part in predicting perinatal death. Mothers who have previously experienced a perinatal death are more likely to experience a second one. (PAPUA NEW GUINEA, PERINATAL MORTALITY, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS)

94.55.16 - English - Dilip C. NATH, Kenneth C. LAND, Department of Sociology, Duke University, Durham, NC (U.S.A.), and Kaushalendra K. SINGH, Centre of Population Studies, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (India)

The Role of Breast-Feeding beyond Postpartum Amenorrhoea on the Return of Fertility in India: A Life Table and Hazards Model Analysis (p. 191-206)

This paper investigates the effects of continued breast-feeding after resumption of menses on fertility, using data from two retrospective surveys in India and single decrement life table and multivariate time-dependent hazards analyses. Breast-feeding even after the return of menses is found to be associated with longer birth intervals. The interaction of breast-feeding duration after resumption of menses and postpartum amenorrhoea has a significant effect on the risk of conception after return of menses. (INDIA, BREAST FEEDING, POST-PARTUM AMENORRHOEA, BIRTH INTERVALS)

94.55.17 - English - Sylvia KIRCHENGAST, Institute for Human Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna (Austria)

Intercorrelations between Menstrual Cycle Patterns and Body Dimensions in Austrian Women (p. 207-216)

94.55.18 - English - Carolyn TUCKER HALPERN, Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina, Chapell Hill, NC (U.S.A.) et al.

Testosterone and Religiosity as Predictors of Sexual Attitudes and Activity among Adolescent Males: A Biosocial Model (p. 217-234)

A biosocial model of the effects of early adolescent testosterone levels and religiosity on adolescent males' sexual attitudes and activity over a 3-year period was examined. Using panel data for approximately 100 boys who were 12.5/13.0 years old at study entry, significant additive effects of free testosterone and frequency of attendance at religious services were demonstrated on the transition to first intercourse and other aspects of sexual behaviour and attitudes. No interactive effects of the two predictors were found. Boys with higher free testosterone levels at study entry who never or infrequently attended religious services were the most sexually active and had the most permissive attitudes. Boys with lower free testosterone who attended services once a week or more were the least active and reported the least permissive attitudes. For some behaviours, differences between free testosterone/attendance groups increased over time, resulting in substantial behavioural differences by the final round of measurement 3 years later. (ADOLESCENTS, SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR, ATTITUDE, TESTOSTERONE, RELIGIOUS PRACTICE)

94.55.19 - English - R. AMIN, Institute for Urban Research, Morgan State University, Baltimore (U.S.A.) et al.

Recent Evidence on Trends and Differentials in Bangladesh Fertility: An Update (p. 235-241)

A comparison of contraceptive and fertility data for 1985-91 with data for 1983 shows that fertility has continued to decline in Bangladesh, in all segments of society. The magnitude of decline varied according to educational level, region and urban-rural locality. The percentage decline in total marital fertility rate was somewhat higher among urban than rural residents; educated women showed greater declines than uneducated, increasing the overall educational differences in total fertility by 1991. Factors contributing to the recent decline in fertility are discussed. (BANGLADESH, FERTILITY DECLINE, DIFFERENTIAL FERTILITY, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS)

94.55.20 - English - Jane E. MILLER, Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research, Rutgers University, new Brunswick, NJ 08903-5070 (U.S.A.)

Birth Order, Interpregnancy Interval and Birth Outcomes among Filipino Infants (p. 243-259)

This study examines the eftects of birth order and interpregnancy interval on birthweight, gestational age, weight-for-gestational age, infant length, and weight-for-length in a sample of 2 063 births from a longitudinal study in the Philippines. First births are the most disadvantaged of any birth order/spacing group. The risks associated with short intervals (< 6 months) and high birth order (fifth or higher) are confined to infants who have both attributes; there is no excess risk associated with short previous intervals among lower-order infants, nor for high birth order infants conceived after longer intervals. This pattern is observed for all live birth outcomes and neonatal mortality, and persists in models that control for mother's age, education, smoking, family health history and nutritional status. Since fewer than 2% of births are both short interval and high birth order, the potential reduction in the incidence of low birthweight or neonatal mortality from avoiding this category of high-risk births is quite small (1-2%). (PHILIPPINES, BIRTH ORDER, INTERPREGNANCY INTERVAL)

94.55.21 - English - O.A.C. VIEGAS, W.P. LEONG, S. AHMED and S.S. RATNAM, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, National University Hospital (Singapore)

Obstetrical Outcome with Increasing Maternal Age (p. 261-267)

A retrospective study of 21,442 Singaporean women who gave birth at the National University Hospital, Singapore, between January 1986 and November 1991 is used to assess the effects of increasing age on obstetric performance. The results show that reproduction after the age of 35 years in Singapore is associated with a higher incidence of antenatal complications such as hypertension and diabetes and a higher rate of obstetric intervention. However, given the current level of obstetric and neonatal care in Singapore, these adverse features do not prejudice the obstetric and neonatal outcomes. (SINGAPORE, HOSPITAL BIRTHS, COMPLICATIONS, MATERNAL AGE)

94.55.22 - English - William H. JAMES, Galton Laboratory, University College London, London (U.K.)

Prostatic Cancer, Coital Rates, Vasectomy and Testosterone (p. 269-272)

It is usually supposed that androgens play a major role in the aetiology of prostatic cancer. This note suggests that the association of the disease with low (as well as high) coital rates and its apparent association with vasectomy can both be reconciled with the hypothesised androgenic involvement. (CANCER, PROSTATE, ANDROGENS, COITAL FREQUENCY, VASECTOMY)

94.55.23 - English - Eugene K. CAMPBELL, Department of Demography, University of Botswana, Gaborone (Botswana)

Fertility, Family Size Preferences and Future Fertility Prospects of Men in the Western Area of Sierra Leone (p. 273-277)

This paper examines the current fertility of men and women in the Western area of Sierra Leone and the prospects for future fertility behaviour. Probably due to the effect of rapid economic decline in Sierra Leone since 1980, the desired family size has fallen. But indications are that the preferred completed family size is lower than the desired family size. (SIERRA LEONE, MEN, DESIRED FAMILY SIZE, EXPECTED FAMILY SIZE, FERTILITY TRENDS)

1994 - VOLUME 26, NUMBER 3

94.55.24 - English - M. SANS, Department of Anthropology, School of Humanities and Sciences of Educatiion, University of the Republic, Montevideo (Uruguay), I. ALVAREZ, National Bank of Organs and Tissues, Clinical Hospital Dr Manuel Quintela, Montevideo (Uruguay), S.M. CALLEGARI-JACQUES and F.M. SALZANO, Genetics Department, Biosciences Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre (Brazil)

Genetic Similarity and Mate Selection in Uruguay (p. 285-289)

It has been suggested that average genetic similarity, as assessed by blood genetic markers, could influence mate choice in humans. In the present study, average genetic similarity was assessed in 183 couples submitting to paternity determinations in relation to six blood group systems and three HLA loci. Couples in which the putative father was excluded were compared with those in which such exclusion did not occur, and real couples were compared to random pairs. The differences were all statistically non-significant. Possible reasons for the different results found in the previous sample and in the present study are considered. (URUGUAY, GENETICS, PARENTHOOD, MATE SELECTION)

94.55.25 - English - Stan BECKER, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD (U.S.A.), and Suraiya BEGUM, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka (Bangladesh)

Reliability Study of Reporting of Days Since Last Sexual Intercourse in Matlab, Bangladesh (p. 291-299)

The accuracy of responses to a question on the frequency of sexual intercourse in the 4-week period prior to an interview is expected to be low. This paper examines the reliability of an alternative question: 'How many days since you last had sexual intercourse?'. This was a part of a larger longitudinal study of fertility dynamics in Matlab, Bangladesh. The response pairs of 61 women who were asked the same question by an interviewer and on the next day by a supervisor, were analysed. Refusals were more common among older women and among women who gave a response at the extremes of the distribution for the other interview. Of the pairs of two responses, 78% had a difference of 3 days or less. Further study and use of the question on days since last intercourse is recommended. (BANGLADESH, METHODOLOGY, QUALITY OF DATA, SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS)

94.55.26 - English - Kevin MARJORIBANKS, University of Adelaide, Adelaide (Australia)

Sibling and Environmental Correlates of Adolescents' Aspirations: Family Group Differences (p. 301-309)

Relationships were examined between sibling variables, perceptions of learning environments and aspirations for Australian adolescents from family contexts defined conjointly by human and social capital. Generally, the findings using a regression approach indicated that sibling variables continued to have significant and often complex associations with adolescents' aspirations after taking into account relationships between perceptions of learning environments and aspirations. Also, relationships between sibling variables, perceptions of learning environments and aspirations, varied for adolescents from the different family contexts. (AUSTRALIA, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, ADOLESCENTS, FAMILY ENVIRONMENT)

94.55.27 - English - Kofi D. BENEFO, Population and Studies Training Center, Brown University, Providence, RI (U.S.A.), Amy O. TSUI and Joseph de GRAFT JOHNSON, Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC (U.S.A.)

Ethnic Differentials in Child-Spacing Ideals and Practices in Ghana (p. 311-326)

Postpartum sexual abstinence may be a major determinant of fertility and of maternal and child health in sub-Saharan Africa. This study examines the relationship between ethnicity and abstinence using data from the 1988 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey. There is considerable diversity in the length of abstinence although only for one ethnic group, the Mole-Dagbani and other Ghanaians, is abstinence, both actual and ideal, very long. Respondents in most ethnic groups believe their abstinence to be adequate. A key motivation for abstinence is the unwillingness to have sexual intercourse with nursing mothers. Education, urbanisation, changes in marriage patterns and religious traditions are major factors shaping the ethnic differentials in abstinence. In comparison to breast-feeding, abstinence appears to have relatively little impact on the length of the birth interval and, for Ghana, has relatively few implications for fertility and child health. (GHANA, BIRTH SPACING, SEXUAL ABSTINENCE, ETHNIC GROUPS)

94.55.28 - English - L. CARO DOBON and J. SANTO TOMAS MARTINEZ, Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, University of Leon (Spain)

Inbreeding in Ojeda and Pernia, 1875-1985, Province of Palencia, Spain (p. 327-340)

The degree of isolation was assessed in two contrasting regions in Northern Palencia, Spain, one mountainous with small villages in the valleys (Pernia), the other lower and more open (Ojeda), with corresponding differences in economy. Using data from the parish and diocesan records, the frequencies of consanguineous marriages were calculated from the dispensation data, and the evolution of inbreeding compared. The more isolated region shows a greater degree of inbreeding, though not as high as in some other parts of Spain. Both regions show a decline in inbreeding with time, though in neither did the results indicate that geographic isolation was very outstanding. The most frequent types of consanguineous unions occur between second cousins. (SPAIN, HISTORY, CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE)

94.55.29 - English - Abdelrahman Ibrahim ABDELRAHMAN, New Jersey Department of Health, Trenton, NJ (U.S.A.)

Education and Assortative Marriage in Northern and Urban Sudan, 1945-79 (p. 341-348)

This study examines the extent of assortative mating for education in Northern Sudan and urban Khartoum. More males than females were found at higher levels of education. Increasingly, people tend to marry persons of equal educational level, but the unequal educational opportunities for males and females have led to the emergence of educational exogamy in which members of different educational levels are more likely to marry from the adjacent educational category than from distant categories. The increasing level of education for both sexes, and especially for females, may in part explain the rising trend in age at marriage. (SUDAN, MATE SELECTION, HOMOGAMY, LEVELS OF EDUCATION)

94.55.30 - English - Odile FRANK, WHO, Genève (Switzerland), P. Grace BIANCHI and Aldo CAMPANA, Hôpital Cantonal Universitaire de Genève, Genève (Switzerland)

The End of Fertility: Age, Fecundity and Fecundability in Women (p. 349-368)

Onset of capacity for childbearing in women is dated biologically by menarche, although actual onset may be delayed. The end of childbearing is less understood but recent demographic and biological research on fertility at older ages is clarifying the end of fertility. The demographic view of declining fertility with age is based on age-specific fertility in natural fertility populations, artificial insemination and pregnancy rates by age and World Fertility Survey data. New data from the Demographic and Health Surveys on exposure to the risk of pregnancy shows that whereas older women biologically need longer exposure to pregnancy, exposure declines on behavioural grounds such as duration of marriage. Actual fecundity is obscured by factors of fecundability. Recent research on medically assisted conception is adding to the understanding of declining fecundity with age, especially the relative contributions of endometrial and ovarian ageing. This paper reviews the available information on declining fertility with age and discusses the implications of the extension of fertility through new medical technologies. (FERTILITY, FECONDITY, FECUNDABILITY, MENOPAUSE)

94.55.31 - English - M. KABIR, Department of Statistics, Jahangirnagar University, Savar (Bangladesh), Ruhul AMIN, Ashraf Uddin AHMED and Jamir CHOWDHURY, Institute for Urban Research, Morgan State University, Baltimore (U.S.A.)

Factors Affecting Desired Family Size in Bangladesh (p. 369-375)

Factors affecting desired family size in rural Bangladesh are examined using data from contraceptive prevalence surveys conducted between 1983 and 1991. The analysis suggests that mothers having two sons and one daughter are more inclined to perceive their family as complete than those having three sons and no daughter. Logistic regression analysis indicates that important determinants of desire for more children are age of woman, current contraceptive use status, work status, and family planning worker's visit. The policy implications of these findings are discussed. (BANGLADESH, DESIRED FAMILY SIZE, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS, FAMILY COMPOSITION, SEX DISTRIBUTION)

94.55.32 - English - Dilip C. NATH and Kenneth C. LAND, Department of Sociology, Duke University, Durham, NC (U.S.A.)

Sex Preference and Third Birth Intervals in a Traditional Indian Society (p. 377-388)

The traditional preference for sons may be the main hindrance to India's current population policy of two children per family. In this study, the effects of various sociodemographic covariates, particularly sex preference, on the length of the third birth interval are examined for the scheduled caste population in Assam, India. Life table and hazards regression techniques are applied to retrospective sample data. The analysis shows that couples having two surviving sons are less likely to have a third child than those without a surviving son and those with only one surviving son. Age at first marriage, length of preceding birth intervals, age of mother, and household income have strong effects on the length of the third birth interval. (INDIA, SEX PREFERENCE, BIRTH INTERVALS, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS)

94.55.33 - English - Colin FRANCOME, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, London (U.K.)

Gynaecologists and Abortion in Northern Ireland (p. 389-394)

The evidence from gynaecologists in Northern Ireland shows confusion in interpretation and practice of abortion law, with some women even being denied abortion after rape. Over two-thirds of gynaecologists supported a change in the law which would leave the abortion decision to the woman and her doctor, but less than half wanted the introduction of the British law. (NORTHERN IRELAND, GYNAECOLOGY, INDUCED ABORTION, LEGISLATION)

94.55.34 - English - Ryutaro OHTSUKA, Department of Human Ecology, University of Tokyo, Tokyo (Japan)

Subsistence Ecology and Carrying Capacity in Two Papua New Guinea Populations (p. 395-407)

This article examines the mechanisms of subsistence adaptation of two Papua New Guinea populations, the Metroxylon sago-depending lowland Gidra and the taro-monoculture Mountain Ok, surviving in low population densities of 0.5 and 1.4 persons per km2. Observation of the groups' land use systems strongly suggests that their population densities have not been far below the carrying capacity, although the territory of each population is markedly heterogeneous. Both groups have maintained their sustainable food production not only for resource management but also for survival at a population level, either expanding their territory or changing the sustainable level in tandem with changes of subsistence system. (PAPUA NEW GUINEA, SUBSISTENCE FARMING, POPULATION DENSITY)

94.55.35 - English - Gill GREEN, MRC Medical Sociology Unit, 6 Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow (Scotland)

The Reproductive Careers of a Cohort of Men and Women Following an HIV-Positive Diagnosis (p. 409-415)

This report examines the consequences of a positive HIV diagnosis upon the reproductive decision-making of 39 men and women in Scotland. Whilst the majority initially decide never to have any (more) children this sometimes changes as other factors gain ascendancy, such as a partner wanting 'their' child, and about one-third had had a child or were intending to do so. The motivations underlying such decisions are discussed and ways in which health services could intervene to support people with HIV in making reproductive choices and to minimise the risk of transmission to an HIV-negative partner and the child are suggested. (SCOTLAND, AIDS, REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR, DECISION MAKING)

1994 - VOLUME 26, NUMBER 4

94.55.36 - English - Joan M. HEROLD, Nancy J. THOMPSON, School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA (U.S.A.), Maria Solange VALENZUELA, University of Chile, Avda Bernardo O'Higgins 1058, Casilla 10-D, Santiago (Chile), and Leo MORRIS, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta (U.S.A.)

Unintended Pregnancy and Sex Education in Chile: A Behavioural Model (p. 427-439)

This study analysed factors associated with unintended pregnancy among adolescent and young adult women in Santiago, Chile. Three variations of a behavioural model were developed. Logistic regression showed that the effect of sex education on unintended pregnancy works through the use of contraception. Other significant effects were found for variables reflecting socioeconomic status and a woman's acceptance of her sexuality. The results also suggested that labelling affects measurement of 'unintended' pregnancy. (CHILE, UNWANTED PREGNANCY, SEXUAL EDUCATION, MODELS)

94.55.37 - English - A. SANCHEZ-ANDRES, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidad de Alcala de Henares (Spain), and M.S. MESA, Seccion de Antropologia, Departamento de Biologia Animal I, Universidad Complutense, Madrid (Spain)

Assortative Mating in a Spanish Population: Effects of Social Factors and Cohabitation Time (p. 441-450)

Assortative mating for 22 anthropometric and body composition characteristics and social indicators was studied in a Spanish sample of 114 married couples. Significant spousal similarity was found for occupation, educational level and number of siblings. Sex-age adjusted spouse correlations were significant for stature, ileospinal height, total arm length, and biacromial breadth. Spouse correlations were not altered after allowance for socioeconomic effects. When couples were grouped according to marriage duration, differences in mate correlations for fatness were detected, suggesting a cohabitational effect on spouse resemblance. (SPAIN, MATE SELECTION, ANTHROPOLOGY)

94.55.38 - English - Maurice C.Y. MBAGO, Department of Statistics, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam (Tanzania)

Some Correlates of Child Mortality in the Refugee Populated Regions in Tanzania (p. 451-467)

Data from the 1988 Tanzania census were used to examine child mortality in three regions populated with Burundi refugees. Logistic and least squares analyses show that for both Tanzanian nationals and refugees low levels of maternal education are associated with high child mortality levels. Children born to mothers who are housewives are associated with low levels of mortality compared to those born to employed mothers, though the results were not statistically significant for the refugees. Maternal demographic status, computed from age and parity, has a strong effect on child survival. Unexpectedly, child mortality was lower where the water source was a well outside the village. Tanzanian mothers who are at highest risk of childbearing are roughly 6.4 times more likely to have a child death than those at lowest risk; the corresponding figure for the refugees is 36.8. This emphasises the need to intensify family planning programmes in these regions. (TANZANIA, BURUNDI, REFUGEES, INFANT MORTALITY, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS)

94.55.39 - English - Jacob Ayo ADETUNJI, Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Cambridge, Massachusetts (U.S.A.)

Infant Mortality in Nigeria: Effects of Place of Birth, Mother's Education and Region of Residence (p. 469-477)

This paper examines the effects of a child's place of birth, mother's education, region of residence and rural and urban residence on infant mortality in Nigeria between 1965 and 1979, using data from the 1981/82 Nigeria Fertility Survey. Infant mortality rates declined in all regions between 1965 and 1979. Children born in modern health facilities, irrespective of their mothers' place of residence, experienced significantly lower rates of infant mortality than those born elsewhere. Logistic regression analysis showed that all other variables tested were also significant, although some to a lesser degree. Efforts to reduce infant mortality in Nigeria should include policies that rectify rural and urban differentials in the distribution of health facilities and encourage their use. (NIGERIA, INFANT MORTALITY, MORTALITY DETERMINANTS, HEALTH FACILITIES)

94.55.40 - English - Alfred MEIER-KOLL and Barbara SCHARDL, Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz (Germany)

Ultradian Behaviour Cycles in a Village Community of Colombian Indians (p. 479-492)

The daily activities observed in a Colombian village community of contemporary hunting and gathering people were analysed with respect to their time structure. Short term cycles of about 2 hours could be detected in both individual and common behavioural patterns. These behaviour cycles of individual group members appear to have been synchronised by social interaction. From temporal variations of individual activities a common ultradian time frame emerged. (COLOMBIA, INDIGENEOUS POPULATION, TIME BUDGET)

94.55.41 - English - Konia T. KOLLEHLON, Department of Social Sciences, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Princess Anne, Maryland (U.S.A.)

Religious Affiliation and Fertility in Liberia (p. 493-507)

This study examines fertility differentials by religious affiliation in Liberia, within the context of two competing hypotheses: the characteristic and particularised theology. Using a subsample of currently married women from the 1986 Liberian Demographic and Health Survey, the study examines the fertility of five religious groups: Catholic, Protestant, Moslem, traditional, and other women. Overall, the findings are more consistent with the characteristic hypothesis, because the small fertility differentials by religious affiliation are largely accounted for by differences in the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of these women. (LIBERIA, DIFFERENTIAL FERTILITY, RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION)

94.55.42 - English - Bertrand DESJARDINS, Département de Démographie, Université de Montréal, Suc. "A", C.P. 6128, Montréal, QC H3C 3J7 (Canada), Alain BIDEAU and Guy BRUNET, Centre Pierre Léon, CNRS, Université Lumière-Lyon 2, Lyon (France)

Age of Mother at Last Birth in Two Historical Populations (p. 509-516)

This study uses sets of historical family reconstitutions from all of Quebec and from four villages of the Haut-Jura, France-first marriages of 2 226 and 994 women, respectively-to investigate the physiological and social factors affecting age of mother at last birth before and during fertility transition. Age remained high throughout the period covered in Quebec, under 'natural' conditions, but showed a steady decline in the French material which extends to late 19th century generations practising family limitation. Age at marriage had no influence in Quebec; in France, however, women with the most surviving children at age 35 continued childbearing the latest. There was no link between biological ability to achieve a live birth, or in health status or aging rhythm, and age at last birth. Behaviour of mothers and daughters showed no relation. The variability in age at last birth thus appears to be random under natural conditions; with the onset of controls, social differences seem to influence not only the end of childbearing, but all aspects of behaviour governing final family size and child survival. (CANADA, FRANCE, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, MATERNAL AGE, LAST-BORN)

94.55.43 - English - M. Jane HEINIG, Laurie A. NOMMSEN-RIVERS, Janet M. PEERSON and Kathryn G. DEWEY, Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis (U.S.A.)

Factors Related to Duration of Postpartum Amenorrhoea Among USA Women with Prolonged Lactation (p. 517-527)

Duration of postpartum amenorrhoea (PPA) was compared among women who breast-fed for = 6 months (breast-feeding group) or ¾ 3 months (formula-feeding group) and was found to be significantly shorter among the latter. Associations between maternal factors and duration of PPA were examined. Within the formula-feeding group, the only variable associated with duration of PPA was duration of breast-feeding. Among breast-feeding mothers who resumed menstruation after 3 months postpartum, duration of PPA was positively associated with parity and negatively associated with maternal body mass index (BMI) at 3 months postpartum. Among breastfeeding mothers who resumed menstruation after 6 months, duration of PPA was positively associated with parity, pregnancy weight gain, number of night feeds and milk volume at 6 months, and negatively associated with maternal age and BMI at 6 months postpartum. These results indicate that maternal anthropometric status is related to duration of PPA, even in a relatively well-nourished population of lactating women. (UNITED STATES, POST-PARTUM AMENORRHOEA, DURATION OF LACTATION, ANTHROPOMETRY)

94.55.44 - English - Akim J. MTURI and P. R. Andrew HINDE, Department of Social Statistics, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, SO9 5NH (U.K.)

Fertility Decline in Tanzania (p. 529-538)

According to the 1991/92 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey, a Tanzanian woman has, on average, 6.1 births before she reaches age 50, a decline of about one birth per woman since the early 1980s. The major proximate determinant of fertility is universal and prolonged breastfeeding. An analysis of the social and demographic correlates of fertility shows that infant and child mortality, level of education and age at first marriage are among the factors which significantly influence fertility in Tanzania. (TANZANIA, FERTILITY DECLINE, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS)

94.55.45 - English - Robert S. HOGG, Division of Demography and Sociology, Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra (Australia)

Variability in Behavioural Risk Factors for Heart Disease in an Australian Aboriginal Community (p. 539-551)

The variability of three behavioural risk factors for heart disease - heavy alcohol and tobacco consumption and physical inactivity - was assessed in an Australian Aboriginal community, where heart disease death rates were high. Prevalence levels were assessed by comparison with those experienced by all adult Australians and by evaluating whether Aboriginal rates were influenced by underlying sociodemographic conditions. A total of 159 males and 114 females participated. Compared to all Australians, Aborigines are significantly more likely to drink five or more drinks on a drinking day, to be current smokers, and not to participate in vigorous exercise. In the Aboriginal community, univariate analysis indicates that: the odds of being a heavy drinker are significantly higher for those in unsatisfactory health; odds of being a current smoker are significantly higher for those in unsatisfactory health or unemployed; odds of not participating in vigorous exercise are significantly higher for those in unsatisfactory health, unemployed or without secondary education. Multivariate analysis shows that risk of being a heavy drinker is independently associated with sex, age, and health status; risk of being a current smoker is associated with health and employment status. The risk of not participating in vigorous exercise is significantly related to all sociodemographic variables examined. Reasons for these associations are discussed. (AUSTRALIA, INDIGENEOUS POPULATION, CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES)

94.55.46 - English - Donald J. ADAMCHAK, Department of Sociology, Kansas State University, Manhattan (U.S.A.), and Michael T. MBIZVO, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Zimbabwe, Harare (Zimbabwe)

The Impact of Husband's and Wife's Education and Occupation on Family Size in Zimbabwe (p. 553-558)

This paper assesses the impact of husband's and wife's education and occupation on family size in Zimbabwe. Results from the 1988 Male Fertility Survey indicate that husband's education haid a strong negative effect, and wife's education had a moderate negative effect on the number of children ever born. Contrary to the literature, wives who were not employed had significantly fewer children than those who work in agriculture, and fewer, but not significantly, than those in non-agricultural occupations. Findings show the importance of husband's education and the chiangin dynamics of wife's occupation in fertility decline. (ZIMBABWE, FERTILITY DECLINE, LEVELS OF EDUCATION, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT)

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